Measuring chemical weathering histories in submarine fan deposits is critical if the impact of orogenic erosion on atmospheric CO2 levels is to be understood, yet existing records are often noisy and hard to interpret. In this study, we selected mudstones from two International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) sites from the Indus submarine fan and carefully removed the biogenic carbonate. The resulting records of chemical weathering show two trends, one of reducing chemical alteration since ∼8 Ma and which is associated with the Indus River, while a second trend is linked to sediment delivery from peninsular India. The second trend shows little temporal variation. Sediment deposited at IODP Site U1456 in the central Laxmi Basin is preferentially, but not exclusively, Indus-derived, while that at Site U1457 on the eastern flank of Laxmi Ridge is more peninsula-derived. Both trends show much less variability than seen in earlier studies in which various grain-size fractions were integrated together. The efficiency with which CO2 is removed from the atmosphere during chemical weathering has decreased over time in the Indus River-derived material. This reflects both lower degrees of alteration in the sediment since the late Miocene and increasing derivation of sediment from Himalayan sources, rather than more mafic Karakoram-Kohistan rocks. Previous estimates of CO2 consumption have overestimated the contribution that the Indus Basin has made to reducing atmospheric CO2 by ∼28–68%. This work emphasizes the importance of analysing appropriate largely silt-sized sediment when considering submarine fan records and in rigorously removing biogenic carbonate.

To compare the benefits and drawbacks of traditional and automated conservation assessments, we used a field-based study and automated conservation assessments using GeoCAT, red and ConR to assess four species of Buddleja (Scrophulariaceae), a cosmopolitan genus of flowering plants. Buddleja colvilei, Buddleja sessilifolia, Buddleja delavayi and Buddleja yunnanensis are endemic to the Himalayan region. They have not yet been assessed for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species but are facing elevated risks of extinction because of various anthropogenic and environmental pressures. Buddleja sessilifolia and B. delavayi are listed as Plant Species with Extremely Small Populations in Yunnan, China, where they are known to be threatened. Although automated assessments evaluated B. delavayi and B. yunnanensis as Endangered and B. sessilifolia and B. colvilei as Vulnerable, our field studies indicated a different categorization for three of the species: B. delavayi and B. yunnanensis as Critically Endangered and B. sessilifolia as Endangered. Our findings indicate that the accuracy and reliability of assessment methods can differ and that field surveys remain important for conservation assessments. We recommend an integrated approach addressing these limitations, to safeguard the future of other species endemic to the Himalayan region.

A detailed examination of Malmidea specimens deposited in the herbarium LWG and freshly collected samples resulted in the description of 10 new species. Malmidea glabromarginata has a finely verrucose thallus and granifera-type whitish apothecial margins. Malmidea globosa is characterized by having a strongly verrucose thallus with almost spherical warts and piperis-type apothecial margins. Malmidea incrassatispora has a thalline excipulum and ascospores with end wall thickenings. Malmidea kalbii has a thalline excipulum, dark brown to black apothecial discs and ascospores mostly < 15 μm in length. In Malmidea lutea the medulla of the thallus and verrucae is white to cream-coloured, with beige-coloured apothecial discs. Malmidea palghatensis has a thalline excipulum and with medulla of verrucae pink-coloured. Malmidea rubra has an irregularly verrucose thallus, with the medulla of verrucae orange-red and whitish apothecial margins. Malmidea subindica has light to dark orange-brown apothecial discs, 2–4-spored asci, and broadly ellipsoid ascospores mostly exceeding 30 μm in length. Malmidea upretii has prominent and confluent verrucae with an orange-red medulla, and ascospores exceeding 25 μm in length. Malmidea verrucosa has a characteristic whitish grey, densely verrucose thallus, dark reddish brown apothecial discs and contains atranorin. Additionally, seven species, viz. Malmidea fenicis (Vain.) Kalb et al., M. leptoloma (Müll. Arg.) Kalb & Lücking, M. piae (Kalb) Kalb, M. piperina (Zahlbr.) Aptroot & Breuss, M. reunionis Kalb, M. sulphureosorediata Cáceres et al. and M. vinosa (Eschw.) Kalb et al., are reported as new distributional records for the Indian lichen biota. The world key of Malmidea by Breuss & Lücking (2015) has been updated with all the species discovered after 2015 by mentioning specific couplets.

The chemical composition of meltwater-draining Himalayan glacierized basins reflects the dominance of carbonic acid in weathering of silicate and carbonate minerals, yet the role of sulfuric acid-mediated reactions in the mineral weathering and ionic release is still unclear. Here, we present a long-term study (1992–2018) of chemical weathering characteristics of a precipitation-dominated glacierized basin (Dokriani glacier) of central Himalaya. By using new and reprocessed datasets of major ions from the glacial/subglacial zones of the glacier, we suggest that two-thirds of the dissolved load of the meltwater derives from sulfuric acid-mediated weathering of minerals and rocks. We observed a clear control of carbonic acid-mediated reactions in the early ablation periods, while sulfuric acid-mediated reactions dominate in peak and late ablation periods. The slopes and intercepts in best-fit regressions of [*Ca2+ + *Mg2+ vs *SO42− and HCO3−] and [HCO3− vs *SO42−] in meltwater were following the stoichiometric parameters of sulfide oxidation coupled to carbonate dissolution reactions. The glaciers of the central and western Himalaya are in good agreement with the present estimates. We contend that the bedrock lithology has limited or second-order effects over the ionic release from Himalayan glaciers and surmise that these patterns are broadly applicable to the other orogenic systems of the world.

Although wildlife trade has received considerable research and conservation attention, much of it has been focused on charismatic species, with taxa such as fungi receiving little or no attention despite being highly sought after. The caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis is highly valued as an ingredient in cosmetics and medicines, and as an aphrodisiac and dietary supplement. Despite its livelihood and socio-economic significance, it has received little attention in either research or wildlife trade policy. Nevertheless, trade appears to be rampant, and growing online, and this is an emerging conservation challenge. Here we present a systematic survey of online trade in the caterpillar fungus during 2021. During this period, 168 advertisements were recorded on eight e-commerce platforms, both national and international. The grade of the caterpillar fungus advertised for sale fell into six categories. Fungi described as pure/organic/wild grade, which we categorized as authentic grade, had the highest median price (24 USD/g) and those described as medicine/food/cosmetic/beverage, which we categorized as consumption grade, had the lowest median price (0.04 USD/g). The highest advertised sale price was for caterpillar fungus of Bhutan origin (155 USD/g) advertised on the eBay e-commerce platform. Trade in caterpillar fungus on national and international online platforms is evident, and trade in other non-charismatic species is also likely burgeoning online but remains poorly documented. Further systematic surveys of online trade are required, not only to improve understanding of such trade but also to facilitate the development of effective conservation interventions and prevent undocumented overexploitation of important natural resources in developing countries.

The Hindu Raj region of northern Pakistan is situated between the Karakoram to the east and the Hindu Kush to the west. Both the Karakoram and the Hindu Kush are better studied and have well-documented, distinct geological histories. Investigation of the Hindu Raj region has been mainly limited to reconnaissance exploration and as such little is known about its tectonometamorphic history and whether that history is similar to its neighbouring areas. Analysis of new specimens collected along the Yasin Valley within the Hindu Raj region outline mid-to-Late Cretaceous pluton emplacement (ca. 105 and 95 Ma). Some of those plutonic rocks were metamorphosed to ∼750 ± 30 °C and 0.65 ± 0.05 GPa during the ca. 80–75 Ma docking of the Kohistan arc. A record of this collisional event is well-preserved to the west in the Hindu Kush and variably so to the east in the Hunza Karakoram. A subsequent, ca. 61 Ma, thermal event is partially preserved in Rb–Sr geochronology from the Hindu Raj, which overlaps with sillimanite-grade metamorphism in the Hunza portion of the Karakoram region to the east. Finally, apatite U–Pb and in situ Rb–Sr both record a late Eocene thermal/fluid event likely related to the India-Asia collision. These new data outline a complex geological history within the Hindu Raj, one that shares similarities with both adjacent regions. The information about the tectonometamorphic development of the Hindu Raj is important to gaining a detailed view of the geological characteristics of the southern Asian margin prior to the India-Asia collision.

Structural analysis, petrochronology and metamorphic petrology enable identification and bracketing of the timing of a newly mapped high-temperature ductile shear zone (Jagat Shear Zone (JSZ)) in the Himalayan metamorphic core in Central-Western Nepal. In situ U-Th-Pb monazite petrochronology constrains the timing of top-to-the-S/SW shearing between 28–27 Ma and 17 Ma. Burial and prograde metamorphisms in footwall rocks were linked to thrust-sense movement along the JSZ, while the hanging wall rocks were retrogressed and exhumed. The identification and age of the JSZ (as part of a regional system of shear zones: the High Himalayan Discontinuity (HHD)) coupled with the localization and timing of activity of the Main Central Thrust (MCT) (i) fills a gap in tracing the HHD along orogenic strike, (ii) supports the identification of the position and timing of the long-debated MCT and (iii) helps to place the boundaries of the Himalayan metamorphic core and its internal architecture. Thus, our study is a significant step towards a precise identification of the burial, assembly and exhumation mechanisms of the Himalayan metamorphic core.

Sediment transfer from the interiors of the Himalaya is complex because the archives are influenced by both glacial and monsoonal cycles. To deconvolve the coupling of glacial and monsoonal effects on sediment transfer processes, we investigate the Late Pleistocene–Holocene sediment archive in the Upper Chenab valley. Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) ages from the archive indicate major aggradation during ca. 20–10 ka. Isotopic fingerprinting using Sr-Nd isotopes in silt fractions together with clast counts in boulder-pebble fractions indicate a decreasing Higher Himalayan sediment flux in the archive with time. Decreasing clast size, increasing clast roundness, increasing matrix to clast ratio, and dominance of the Higher Himalayan sourcing unequivocally suggest strong glacial influence during the initial stages of the archive formation. This evidence also agrees with the existing retreat ages of glaciers in the Upper Chenab valley. Results of our study also show that the upper parts of the archive contain significant fluvial sediment contribution from the Lesser Himalaya, which suggests an active role of the stronger Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) in the region during the Early Holocene. The apparent decrease in sediment supply from the Higher Himalayan sources could have been due to longer source-to-sink transport in the Early Holocene and/or increased hillslope flux from Lesser Himalayan sources.

Eclogite-facies mineral assemblages are commonly preserved in mafic protoliths within continental terranes. It is widely accepted that the entirety of these continental terrains must also have been subducted to eclogite-facies conditions. However, evidence that the felsic material transformed at eclogite-facies conditions is lacking. Low-strain metagranites of the ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic Tso Morari Complex in Ladakh, Himalaya, are host to eclogite-facies mafic sills and preserve evidence of subduction to eclogite-facies conditions. Following the eclogite-facies metamorphism, the granites and their gneissic equivalents were overprinted by amphibolite-facies Barrovian metamorphism, obscuring their earlier metamorphic history. We present evidence that the Tso Morari metagranites preserve a complex magmatic, hydrothermal and polymetamorphic history that involved four stages. Stage 1 was magmatic crystallisation, a record of which is preserved in the primary igneous mineralogy and relict igneous microstructures. Monazite grains record a U–Pb age of 474.0 ± 11.6 Ma, concurrent with a published zircon crystallisation age. Stage 2 represents pervasive late-magmatic hydrothermal alteration of the granite during emplacement and is evident in the mineral composition, particularly in the white micas preserved in the igneous domains. Stage 3 involved the (ultra)high-pressure metamorphism of these granite bodies during the Himalayan subduction of continental material. The high-pressure stage of the metamorphic history (>25 kbar at 550–650°C) is preserved as thin coronas of garnet and phengite around igneous biotite, garnet with kyanite inclusions in pseudomorphs after cordierite, and rare palisade quartz textures after coesite. Stage 4 was a result of Barrovian metamorphism of the Tso Morari Complex and is evident in the replacement of garnet by biotite. Many of these features are preserved in localised textural domains in the rock, where local equilibrium was important and the anhydrous conditions limited reaction progress, though aided preservation potential. Collectively, these four stages record a 480 Myr history of metamorphism and reworking of the northernmost Indian plate.

Global biodiversity is at a heightened risk of extinction and we are losing species faster than at any other time. It is important to understand the threats that drive a species towards extinction in order to address those drivers. In this paper, we assess our knowledge of the threats faced by 24 Himalayan Galliformes species by undertaking a review of the threats reported in the published literature and the supporting evidence that the threat is having an impact on the species’ populations. Only 24 papers were deemed suitable to be included in the study. We found that biological resource use and agriculture and aquaculture are the predominant threats to the Galliformes in the Greater Himalaya but the evidence available in the studies is quite poor as only one paper quantified the impact on species. This study shows that major gaps exist in our understanding of threats to species, and it is imperative to fill those gaps if we want to prevent species from going extinct.

Recent progress has been made in quantifying snowmelt in the Himalaya. Although the conditions are favorable for refreezing, little is known about the spatial variability of meltwater refreezing, hindering a complete understanding of seasonal snowmelt dynamics. This study aims to improve our understanding about how refreezing varies in space and time. We simulated refreezing with the seNorge (v2.0) snow model for the Langtang catchment, Nepalese Himalaya, covering a 5-year period. Meteorological forcing data were derived from a unique elaborate network of meteorological stations and high-resolution meteorological simulations. The results show that the annual catchment average refreezing amounts to 122 mm w.e. (21% of the melt), and varies strongly in space depending on elevation and aspect. In addition, there is a seasonal altitudinal variability related to air temperature and snow depth, with most refreezing during the early melt season. Substantial intra-annual variability resulted from fluctuations in snowfall. Daily refreezing simulations decreased by 84% (annual catchment average of 19 mm w.e.) compared to hourly simulations, emphasizing the importance of using sub-daily time steps to capture melt–refreeze cycles. Climate sensitivity experiments revealed that refreezing is highly sensitive to changes in air temperature as a 2°C increase leads to a refreezing decrease of 35%.

The ablation zones of debris-covered glaciers in Himalaya exhibit heterogeneous processes and melt patterns. Although sub-debris melt is measured at ablation stakes, the high variability of debris thickness necessitates distributed melt measurements at the glacier scale. Focusing on Annapurna III Glacier, we used uncrewed aerial system (UAS) photogrammetry to estimate total volume loss and slope-perpendicular glacier melt between May and November 2019 using flow-corrected point clouds. Results indicated the average elevation change was −1.10 ± 0.19 m, while the mean melt was −0.87 m w.e., equating to a mean melt rate of −0.47 cm w.e. d−1. However, the spatial pattern was highly variable due to complex local processes necessitating future study over short intervals. The evaluation of specific areas showed the interplay of debris thickness variability, subseasonal debris redistribution, supraglacial channel reconfiguration and the imprint of relict ice cliffs in leading to contemporary melt rates. Ice cliffs had higher melt distances (mean −3.9 ± 0.19 m) compared to non-cliff areas (mean −0.75 ± 0.19 m) and were the predominant control on the spatial patterns of seasonal melt rates. Crucially, the definition of ice cliff areas from thinning data has a profound impact on derived melt rates and melt enhancement. Our study demonstrates the possibility and utility of deriving fully-distributed slope-perpendicular melt measurements.

Garra gotyla is an indigenous coldwater fish of the cyprinid family and has wide geographical distribution in India as well as in other countries of Asia and Africa. Induced breeding in G. gotyla was carried out successfully for the first time and an attempt has been made to document developmental stages chronologically from the first minute of fertilization, through all stages of embryonic development until the fifth day post hatching. This experiment was carried out at 22–24°C water temperature at the Directorate of Coldwater Fisheries Research, Bhimtal, India. During the breeding trial, the fertilization rate was observed as 70–75% and hatching rate was 85–90%. The mature fertilized ova were measured as 0.8–1.0 mm in diameter and the perivitelline membrane became thick soon after fertilization and formation of the germ pole. The periods taken for complete developmental stages were recorded; cleavage stage 111 min (min post fertilization (pf)), blastulation stage 580 min (pf), neurulation and segmentation 1250 min (pf) and hatching was completed after 1420 min. The sac fry was measured as 3 mm in length and took almost 3 days for complete absorption of the yolk content. The major structural and differential changes observed are in head, tail, fins, alimentary canal, rudiments of each organ and appearance of melanophore pigmentation in the whole body. The 5-day-old larvae were measured as 6 mm in length with almost every organ fully differentiated. The present study will be utilized for large-scale production of fingerlings for stock enhancement in rivers, lakes and possibilities of genetic improvement and manipulation at the embryonic stage.

The Shyok Suture in western Himalaya preserves a record of the opening and closure of the Mesotethys Ocean between the Shyok ophiolite and Karakoram terrane prior to the India–Eurasia collision. The formation age of the Shyok ophiolite was unknown, which impeded correlation with similar rocks along the Shyok Suture in Pakistan and corresponding sutures in Tibet. We report the first zircon U–Pb ages of a newly documented suite, here named the Changmar Complex. The Changmar Complex gabbronorite and plagiogranite yielded SHRIMP U–Pb zircon Late Jurassic ages of 159.4 ± 0.9 Ma and 151.9 ± 1.5 Ma. Their highly positive initial εHf values (+14.9 to +16.9) indicate a juvenile mantle origin, without continental crust influence on the magma source. The Shyok ophiolite represents either: (1) a separate island arc that preceded formation of the Cretaceous–Eocene Ladakh Arc; or (2) the oldest magmatism and early stage of the Ladakh Arc. Intrusive and extrusive mafic rocks from the Shyok Suture analysed in this study have typical supra-subduction zone enrichment characteristics in their geochemistry and are classified as part of the volcanic-arc ophiolite. The U–Pb age and Hf isotopic signatures for the Shyok ophiolite are similar to the Late Jurassic Matum Das tonalite within the Kohistan Arc; we therefore suggest that they are part of the same intra-oceanic island-arc system that formed in the Mesotethys Ocean prior to Late Jurassic time.