We give an explicit formula for the Frobenius number of triples associated with the Diophantine equation $x^2+y^2=z^3$, that is, the largest positive integer that can only be represented in p ways by combining the three integers of the solutions of $x^2+y^2=z^3$. For the equation $x^2+y^2=z^2$, the Frobenius number has already been given. Our approach can be extended to the general equation $x^2+y^2=z^r$ for $r>3$.

A natural operation on numerical semigroups is taking a quotient by a positive integer. If $\mathcal {S}$ is a quotient of a numerical semigroup with k generators, we call $\mathcal {S}$ a k-quotient. We give a necessary condition for a given numerical semigroup $\mathcal {S}$ to be a k-quotient and present, for each $k \ge 3$, the first known family of numerical semigroups that cannot be written as a k-quotient. We also examine the probability that a randomly selected numerical semigroup with k generators is a k-quotient.

We call a semigroup $S$weakly right noetherian if every right ideal of $S$ is finitely generated; equivalently, $S$ satisfies the ascending chain condition on right ideals. We provide an equivalent formulation of the property of being weakly right noetherian in terms of principal right ideals, and we also characterize weakly right noetherian monoids in terms of their acts. We investigate the behaviour of the property of being weakly right noetherian under quotients, subsemigroups and various semigroup-theoretic constructions. In particular, we find necessary and sufficient conditions for the direct product of two semigroups to be weakly right noetherian. We characterize weakly right noetherian regular semigroups in terms of their idempotents. We also find necessary and sufficient conditions for a strong semilattice of completely simple semigroups to be weakly right noetherian. Finally, we prove that a commutative semigroup $S$ with finitely many archimedean components is weakly (right) noetherian if and only if $S/\mathcal {H}$ is finitely generated.

Taking residual finiteness as a starting point, we consider three related finiteness properties: weak subsemigroup separability, strong subsemigroup separability and complete separability. We investigate whether each of these properties is inherited by Schützenberger groups. The main result of this paper states that for a finitely generated commutative semigroup S, these three separability conditions coincide and are equivalent to every $\mathcal {H}$ -class of S being finite. We also provide examples to show that these properties in general differ for commutative semigroups and finitely generated semigroups. For a semigroup with finitely many $\mathcal {H}$ -classes, we investigate whether it has one of these properties if and only if all its Schützenberger groups have the property.

For numerical semigroups with a specified list of (not necessarily minimal) generators, we describe the asymptotic distribution of factorization lengths with respect to an arbitrary modulus. In particular, we prove that the factorization lengths are equidistributed across all congruence classes that are not trivially ruled out by modular considerations.

Let X be a monoid scheme. We will show that the stalk at any point of X defines a point of the topos of quasi-coherent sheaves over X. As it turns out, every topos point of is of this form if X satisfies some finiteness conditions. In particular, it suffices for M/M× to be finitely generated when X is affine, where M× is the group of invertible elements.

This allows us to prove that two quasi-projective monoid schemes X and Y are isomorphic if and only if and are equivalent.

The finiteness conditions are essential, as one can already conclude by the work of A. Connes and C. Consani [3]. We will study the topos points of free commutative monoids and show that already for ℕ∞, there are ‘hidden’ points. That is to say, there are topos points which are not coming from prime ideals. This observation reveals that there might be a more interesting ‘geometry of monoids’.

Let C be a set of positive integers. In this paper, we obtain an algorithm for computing all subsets A of positive integers which are minimals with the condition that if x1 + … + xn is a partition of an element in C, then at least a summand of this partition belongs to A. We use techniques of numerical semigroups to solve this problem because it is equivalent to give an algorithm that allows us to compute all the numerical semigroups which are maximals with the condition that has an empty intersection with the set C.

This paper is dedicated to a problem raised by Jacquet Tits in 1956: the Weyl group of a Chevalley group should find an interpretation as a group over what is nowadays called $\mathbb{F}_{1}$, the field with one element. Based on Part I of The geometry of blueprints, we introduce the class of Tits morphisms between blue schemes. The resulting Tits category$\text{Sch}_{{\mathcal{T}}}$ comes together with a base extension to (semiring) schemes and the so-called Weyl extension to sets. We prove for ${\mathcal{G}}$ in a wide class of Chevalley groups—which includes the special and general linear groups, symplectic and special orthogonal groups, and all types of adjoint groups—that a linear representation of ${\mathcal{G}}$ defines a model $G$ in $\text{Sch}_{{\mathcal{T}}}$ whose Weyl extension is the Weyl group $W$ of ${\mathcal{G}}$. We call such models Tits–Weyl models. The potential of Tits–Weyl models lies in (a) their intrinsic definition that is given by a linear representation; (b) the (yet to be formulated) unified approach towards thick and thin geometries; and (c) the extension of a Chevalley group to a functor on blueprints, which makes it, in particular, possible to consider Chevalley groups over semirings. This opens applications to idempotent analysis and tropical geometry.

The catenary degree is an invariant that measures the distance between factorisations of elements within an atomic monoid. In this paper, we classify which finite subsets of $\mathbb{Z}_{\geq 0}$ occur as the set of catenary degrees of a numerical monoid (that is, a co-finite, additive submonoid of $\mathbb{Z}_{\geq 0}$). In particular, we show that, with one exception, every finite subset of $\mathbb{Z}_{\geq 0}$ that can possibly occur as the set of catenary degrees of some atomic monoid is actually achieved by a numerical monoid.

For a discrete abelian cancellative semigroup $\def \xmlpi #1{}\def \mathsfbi #1{\boldsymbol {\mathsf {#1}}}\let \le =\leqslant \let \leq =\leqslant \let \ge =\geqslant \let \geq =\geqslant \def \Pr {\mathit {Pr}}\def \Fr {\mathit {Fr}}\def \Rey {\mathit {Re}}S$ with a weight function $\omega $ and associated multiplier semigroup $M_\omega (S)$ consisting of $\omega $-bounded multipliers, the multiplier algebra of the Beurling algebra of $(S,\omega )$ coincides with the Beurling algebra of $M_\omega (S)$ with the induced weight.

Questions concerning the lengths of factorizations into irreducible elements in numerical monoids have gained much attention in the recent literature. In this note, we show that a numerical monoid has an element with two different irreducible factorizations of the same length if and only if its embedding dimension is greater than two. We find formulas in embedding dimension three for the smallest element with two different irreducible factorizations of the same length and the largest element whose different irreducible factorizations all have distinct lengths. We show that these formulas do not naturally extend to higher embedding dimensions.

We say that a numerical semigroup is $d$-squashed if it can be written in the form

$$S\,=\,\frac{1}{N}\langle {{a}_{1}},\,.\,.\,.\,,\,{{a}_{d}}\rangle \,\cap \,\mathbb{Z}$$

for $N$, ${{a}_{1}}\,,\,.\,.\,.\,,\,{{a}_{d}}$ positive integers with $\gcd \left( {{a}_{1}},\,.\,.\,.\,,{{a}_{d}} \right)\,=\,1$. Rosales and Urbano have shown that a numerical semigroup is 2-squashed if and only if it is proportionally modular.

Recent works by Rosales et al. give a concrete example of a numerical semigroup that cannot be written as an intersection of 2-squashed semigroups. We will show the existence of infinitely many numerical semigroups that cannot be written as an intersection of 2-squashed semigroups. We also will prove the same result for 3-squashed semigroups. We conjecture that there are numerical semigroups that cannot be written as the intersection of $d$-squashed semigroups for any fixed $d$, and we prove some partial results towards this conjecture.

For a numerical semigroup S, a positive integer a and a nonzero element m of S, we define a new numerical semigroup R(S,a,m) and call it the (a,m)-rotation of S. In this paper we study the Frobenius number and the singularity degree of R(S,a,m). Moreover, we observe that the rotations of ℕ are precisely the modular numerical semigroups.

We show that the class of system proportionally modular numerical semigroups coincides with the class of numerical semigroups having a Toms decomposition.

Let be a finitely presented variety with operations Ω and let be the variety having the same set of operations Ω but defined by the empty set of identities. A partial-algebra is a set P with a set of mappings containing for each n-ary operation f of Ω a mapping , where D ⊆ Pn. An incomplete -algebra is a partial -algebra which satisfies the defining identities of , insofar as they can be applied to the partial operations of (Trevor Evans [4, p. 67]). We call an incomplete -algebra a partial Evans-algebra if it can be embedded in a member of the variety .

If the class of all partial Evans -algebras is (first-order) finitely axiomatizable, then the word problem for the variety is solvable. (Evans [4, 5]). In 1953 Evans [5, p. 79] raised the question of whether the converse is true. In this paper we show that the answer is in the negative.

Let CSg denote the variety of commutative semigroups. We call an incomplete CSg-algebra an incomplete commutative semigroup and we call a partial Evans CSg-algebra a partial Evans commutative semigroup. It is known (A. I. Malcev [9] see also Evans [6]) that the variety of commutative semigroups has solvable word problem. We show (Theorem 1) that the class of all partial Evans commutative semigroups is not finitely axiomatizable. Therefore the solvability of the word problem for the variety of commutative semigroups does not imply finite axiomatizability of the class of all partial Evans commutative semigroups.

We prove that a commutative preordered semigroup embeds into the space of all equidecomposability types of subsets of some set equipped with a group action (in short, a full type space) if and only if it satisfies the following axioms: (i) (⩝x,y) (x ≤ x + y); (ii) (⩝x,y)((x ≤ y and y ≤ x) ⇒ x = y); (iii) (⩝x,y,u, v)((x + u ≤ y + u and u ≤ v) ⩝ x + v ≤ y ≤ v); (iv) (⩝x, u, V)((x + u = u and u ≤ v) ⇒ x + v = v); (v) (⩝x,y)(mx ≤ my ⇒ x ≤ y) (all m ∊ Ν \ {0}). Furthermore, such a structure can always be embedded into a reduced power of the space Τ of nonempty initial segments of + with rational (possibly infinite) endpoints, equipped with the addition defined by and the ordering defined by . As a corollary, the set of all universal formulas of (+, ≤) satisfied by all full type spaces is decidable.