We’re already half way through another year – with the WPSA and the journal as busy as ever, with some major changes now in place regarding how we handle papers. As of 9th March, the journal moved to online submissions. This is a great move, as it allows us to monitor papers far better, as well as increasing our capacity for handling more papers, which has become an issue of late. It allows me to gather statistics on the papers we receive and the reviewing system, which will help us to become more efficient in future. Already the first submissions have been received and processed via the online system, and it appears to be working well. However, we still have the problem of authors sending in papers that are not reviews. It is crucial that authors follow the instructions for submitting papers carefully – as papers that are not reviews will be rejected directly. We would welcome feedback from authors who have used the new system too – as I am sure there will be some improvements we can make along the way.

The poultry industry continues to be a strong player in the world of agriculture. Even though the global economic woes continue unabated, the poultry sector remains important as a primary producer of human food, and sales of eggs and meat seem to have been hit less than the red meat sector, for instance. This seems logical, as people start to cut back on their food budgets. However, the academic world has been hit by cuts in funding, and we can only hope this doesn’t curtail research and development within the animal sciences.

In this issue of the journal you will notice we have some events planned with new branches, as well as a range of papers covering diverse topics. As we continue to get more INFPD papers submitted, I have decided to include these in every issue, as there are too many now to be used in just two issues per year.

Dr Lucy Waldron (previously Tucker)

Editor

In a commercial hatchery, chicks (or poults) hatch over a 24-48 hour period. All chicks remain in the incubator until the majority of the chicks have emerged from the shell. Once removed from the incubator, the newly hatched chick has to undergo several hatchery treatments and is then transported before being placed on the broiler farm. This means that, under practical conditions, chicks are deprived of feed and water for up to 72 hours. In addition, the time of hatch within the hatching window and the spread of hatch cause variability in the amount of time that chicks are feed deprived. Literature on feed deprivation after hatch clearly demonstrates the detrimental effects of any delay in feed access on performance of the chicks with respect to growth, immune system activation, digestive enzyme stimulation and organ development. Improved management strategies, such as shortening the hatching window or the time to first feeding by specific management measures, provide an alternative in dealing with the negative effects caused by a delay in feed access. The development of pre-starter diets that better meet the needs of the newly hatched chicks or in ovo feeding to bridge the gap between hatch and first feeding provide other alternatives in overcoming these problems. However, speculation remains regarding the importance of in ovo or early feeding, or whether the in ovo or early feeding itself is responsible for the beneficial effects reported. The aim of the following review is to discuss the current status of research into early feeding and to stimulate future and further research regarding these topics.

There is a global demand for turkey products and a high value attributed to breast meat from these birds. Breast meat can be considered the most important component of the carcass and consequently it is important to investigate factors that influence breast meat yield (BMY). The BMY trait is influenced by both genetics and the environment at all stages from pre-hatch until the end of the commercial growing period. Additive genetic effects appear to be the primary contributor to BMY, as there is minimal evidence for heterosis or maternal inheritance. The genetic potential for BMY is affected by sex, strain, and selection pressure within a pure line and this affects both muscle morphology and yield. For a turkey to fulfil its full genetic potential for BMY, optimal husbandry and management is required. Nutrition is an important component of production efficiency, although turkeys may be able to tolerate a reduction in dietary protein levels without a negative response in BMY, provided that the levels of all other nutrients are sufficient to meet metabolic needs. Housing conditions, such as barn temperature and lighting, also influence production efficiency. Cooler temperatures increase both weight gain and BMY, relative to a warmer rearing environment. Further, a light cycling programme with a daily set light and dark schedule is associated with higher BMY values compared to frequently alternating light and dark periods throughout the day in an intermittent lighting regime. Due to the influence of both genetics and the environment on BMY, maximisation of yield requires optimum management by all segments of the turkey production industry from the primary breeder through to the commercial grower.

The poultry industry has faced many difficulties with bacterial contamination which affects carcass microbiological status, hence influencing its shelf life and safety as human food. During processing, contamination from carcasses can be transferred to equipment, allowing cross-contamination of subsequent carcasses. HACCP strategies suggest the establishment of water showers to minimise the apparent infection of carcasses, thus allowing them to pass through the PCC2 stage with minimal contamination. The only problem is that some countries do not allow implementation of such washing procedures. The following review article compares the results of studies in this matter, and raises potential strategies for ameliorating the situation.

Antibodies deposited in the avian egg have been found to be a platform for the production of a diverse array of safe commercial products for improving animal health and the efficiency of their production. This review provides over 20 years of experience and comments on the production, storage, stabilisation and use of egg yolk antibodies. Host targeted immuno-therapies presented in this review provides the reader with new areas of research and discovery. Standards for vaccination protocols, methods of isolating and storing the antibodies are also presented. Areas needing to advance the commercial use of egg antibodies, including methods to improve antibody titre, methods to heat stabilise the antibody molecule, and the identification of new uses and targets are also discussed. Examples of successful uses of egg antibodies as feed additives are also presented.

Poultry industries face various decisions in the production cycle that affect the profitability of an operation. Predictions of growth when the birds are ready for sale are important factors that contribute to the economy of poultry operations. Mathematical functions called ‘growth functions’ have been used to relate body weight (W) to age or cumulative feed intake. These can also be used as response functions to predict daily energy and protein dietary requirements for maintenance and growth (France et al., 1989). When describing growth versus age in poultry, a fixed point of inflexion can be a limitation with equations such as the Gompertz and logistic. Inflexion points vary depending on age, sex, breed and type of animal, so equations such as the Richards and López are generally recommended. For describing retention rate against daily intake, which generally does not exhibit an inflexion point, the monomolecular would appear the function of choice.

Poultry production is an important livestock sector in Serbia. It accounts for about 12% of the total value of country's livestock production. Providing relatively cheap food of high quality it is nowadays of particular importance due to economic transition problems and the consequent economic crisis that the country has faced since the beginning of the 1990s. However, despite the sector's importance, poultry production has actually had no institutional support for many years, and the poultry population, as well as broiler meat and table eggs production, has significantly declined over the last two decades. The sector is characterized by insufficient level of concentration, specialization, vertical integration and efficiency. It is estimated that small-scale farms and backyard poultry production in Serbia account for more than half of poultry meat production and two thirds of egg production, with a significant seasonal impact on local markets. The following paper gives an overview of both commercial and small-scale poultry production in Serbia and examine the major economic constrains to and opportunities for poultry sector improvement needed in view of Serbia's prospective EU integration.

Improving the fowl's natural ability to clear Salmonella from their body is important in reducing disease prevalence in poultry flocks, as recommended by a recent regulation of the European Commission. It may be efficient, as expected from estimation of heritability coefficients : 0.16 in chicks and 0.18 for global contamination of hens. The animal's age has to be considered since the genetic correlation between resistances at the two ages is negative. Selecting two series of divergent lines for increased or decreased resistance, after inoculation at one week of age (chick resistance) or at the peak of lay (adult resistance) confirmed the efficiency at least of selection for the adult resistance. In parallel, genes controlling variations to Salmonella resistance were researched and several QTLs identified in crosses between experimental lines and, for some of them, confirmed in commercial lines. Thanks to the derivation of a model of Salmonella propagation within a flock, it has been shown that a combination of vaccination and genetic selection can result in very low percentage of contamination.

The reaction of free radicals with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) initiates a chain-reaction process known as lipid peroxidation in living systems and oxidative rancidity in foods. PUFAs are more susceptible to oxidation, resulting in the formation of toxic products. As embryonic tissues are characterised by high concentration of PUFAs, the use of antioxidants in broiler breeder diets improves chick oxidative status. Eggs ‘in shell’ are considered resistant to oxidative rancidity, however studies showed that yolk lipids within table eggs oxidise during storage and this oxidation is influenced by time and temperature of storage and the degree of unsaturation of yolk fatty acids. Thus, experiments into supplementing laying hen diet with antioxidants have been conducted to preserve the table eggs nutritional value. The literature shows that vitamin E has antioxidant activity in the egg yolk, protecting embryonic tissues efficiently during incubation and in the first days of a chick's life. However, these studies have not considered the effect of this vitamin on incubation yield. Without this economic variable, the positive results observed in the embryo and for chick oxidative status have little value for application in the field, mainly because the concentrations recommended in studies are much higher than those used in practice. Other antioxidants, e.g. canthaxanthin, act in synergy with vitamin E, however, the high cost of these ingredients could prevent its use for broiler breeders. This review discusses the effect of vitamins (especially vitamin E) in broiler breeder's and laying hens nutrition on oxidative stability of embryonic tissues and table egg yolk lipids, respectively.

Despite the suggested health advantages of traditionally- over industrially-produced western 'regular' eggs and the flexibility of egg composition, studies on the effects of egg intake refer mostly to quantity and lack qualitative information. The possibility of lending differential nutritional enhancement and functional advantages, i.e. vs. cardiovascular disease (CVD) or for perinatal health, could impact the current egg intake debate. N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)/long-chain PUFA (LCPUFA) fortification of regular eggs by feeding extruded linseed (5%) yielded 3.8-fold higher total n-3 PUFA and 2.4-fold higher docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), with 3.6-fold lower n-6:n-3 PUFA ratio (p≤0.0005). This resulted in human dietary contributions of 10-20% of the n-3 PUFA Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) and 40% for DHA. Together with antioxidants, they may be beneficial against CVD risks as associated with oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, dyslipidemia, and inflammatory processes, especially in diabetics. Eggs fortified via poultry feed supplementation could attain higher %DRI for pregnancy or lactation for key nutrients, i.e. DHA (≈120- 130%), vitamins A (9.0-15.2%) and E (51.6-65.3%), iodine (15.2-20.1%), and selenium (33.7-39.3%). For infants aged 1-3 years, the improvement in %DRI for vitamins, minerals, and n-3 PUFA needed during peak brain development could be even higher. Compared to increased low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation as seen with intake of two regular high n-6 PUFA eggs/day, eggs with reduced n-6 PUFA (by 40%), increased n-9 monounsaturated FA (MUFA) (by 30%), reduced PUFA:MUFA ratio (by 50%), and increased antioxidants vitamin E and carotenoids (by >200%), were associated with a 30% drop in LDL oxidisability (p<0.01), back to levels seen with a low-egg diet (2-4 eggs/week). Because egg composition is highly feed-dependent and closely affects plasma nutrients and lipoprotein composition and physiological qualities, it has much potential for imparting both nutritional and functional benefits. Poultry feeding could be carefully tailored for egg modification to address specific risks and requirements in consumers, warranting further research regarding differential effects and corresponding quantitative recommendations for egg intake, to maximise beneficial and preventative potential.

The poultry industry in Nigeria constitutes an important agricultural enterprise to the nation, contributing substantially to the nation's Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This paper will assess certain poultry management practices and disease recognition by poultry farmers in Maiduguri in the Borno State of Nigeria, with the view of improving poultry production in this part of the country. The assessment was carried out by questionnaire, which sought information on poultry management systems, flock size, housing, vaccination, use of antibiotics and disease recognition. Two hundred and fifty copies of the questionnaire were distributed to poultry farmers in Maiduguri via day-old-chick sellers, poultry-feed sellers, and staff of poultry units at the State Veterinary and University of Maiduguri Teaching Hospitals. The results of the questionnaire showed that small-holder farmers made up the majority of producer (24.3%), whilst farmers who maintained flock size of greater than 500 chickens were in the minority (13.3%). Most of the farmers (82.7%: N = 173) in Maiduguri use deep litter rearing systems. Half zinc, half wire mesh open–sided poultry houses formed the greater proportion (47.7%) of poultry housing maintained by poultry farmers in the study area. Furthermore, non-adherence to full vaccination schedules (56.7%) and use of multiple antibiotics (72.3%) for chemoprophylaxis in poultry were common. Diarrhoea (39.9%), ruffled feathers (31.8%) and respiratory rales/panting (27.2%) were common signs observed by poultry farmers as part of their disease recognition. The poultry industry in Maiduguri still faces serious constraints due to management practices, such as bad housing, inadequate vaccination and high mortality possibly due to multiple antibiotics resistance resulting from multiple antibiotics usage.

In the cold, arid Himalayan region of India, where the altitude is 3048-3658 m above mean sea level (MSL) and the temperature ranges from +35°C to -35°C, poultry farming is very difficult. Poultry farming in Leh-Ladakh has been a venture that has generally taken a back seat in this cold, arid region for a number of reasons. In this region, the Buddhist community makes up most of the population, and, because of their largely vegetarian lifestyle; they generally avoid killing animals in principal. Another reason is the lack of availability of any specific high yielding variety of layer or broiler breed in this high altitude region. Typically, the existing local poultry breeds exhibit very poor egg and meat production. Further factors which have influenced poultry production are the unavailability of poultry feed and the existence of harsh climatic conditions. The status of poultry rearing in this region is not encouraging, with the current total population of poultry birds limited to just a few thousand. There are many constraints contributing to this, including limited availability of feed, lack of subsidies, religious sentiments, lack of availability of suitable germ plasm, limited poultry feed ingredients, and poor knowledge regarding poultry farming. Furthermore, the housing of poultry is difficult in this cold, arid climate. Maintaining the optimum temperature of 25 to 35°C inside brooder and 15 to 20°C inside grower and layer housing requires modifications to the design of traditional poultry housing. The different types of housing available for use in this area are above- ground mud walled poly sheds, semi-underground mud or stone walled houses, trombay wall sheds and solar poultry houses. Fertility and hatchability are therefore the main problems in this area. The problems of poultry farming in high altitude and their solutions have been addressed in this paper.

This paper reviews the major pathways through which the growth of poultry farming can contribute to improved nutrition and poverty reduction in India, including direct benefits from poultry farming, employment generation along the poultry value chain, and consumption of poultry meat and eggs. Poultry farming and full (or part) time employment along the supply chain only represent a path out of poverty for a limited number of households, whereas increased availability and affordability of poultry meat and eggs for both rural and urban poor, which are mostly net buyers of food, is the most effective way through which poultry sector development can contribute to improved nutrition (and poverty reduction). Public investments in support of backyard poultry farming development remain important for enhancing nutritional status and reducing vulnerability of many rural households. The promotion of selected small-scale market-oriented poultry units in rural areas is expected to contribute to improved nutrition and rural economic growth through increased supply and lower prices of animal proteins and second round productivity and employment effects. Large-scale commercial poultry integrators have comparative and competitive advantages in providing urban consumers, many of which also live below the poverty line, with affordably-priced poultry meat and eggs.

The World’s Poultry Science Journal is indebted to Prof J.A. Castello, Prof D.K. Flock, Dr D. Grastilleur, Dr S. Cherepanov and Prof N. Yang for the translations of these summaries.