Experiments were conducted at the Lonoke Extension and Applied Research Center greenhouse at Lonoke, AR, to evaluate the effects of urea ammonium nitrate (UAN) on bispyribac and penoxsulam efficacy on barnyardgrass, hemp sesbania, and broadleaf signalgrass. Herbicide treatments included bispyribac at 17.9 or 35.8 g ai/ha or penoxsulam at 24.4 or 48.9 g ai/ha tank mixed with (1) no adjuvant, (2) a nonionic organosilicone (OSL) adjuvant at 0.125% v/v, (3) a methylated seed oil/organosilicone (MSO/OSL) adjuvant at 0.37 L/ha, (4) a proprietary blend of MSO/OSL/UAN at 2% v/v, (5) UAN at 2% v/v, (6) OSL at 0.125% plus UAN at 2% v/v, or (7) MSO/OSL at 0.37 L/ha plus UAN at 2% v/v. In addition to these adjuvants, penoxsulam was also applied with crop oil concentrate (COC) at 2.34 L/ha and with COC at 2.34 L/ha plus UAN at 2% v/v. The addition of UAN to either herbicide plus an adjuvant increased herbicide efficacy on barnyardgrass in the greenhouse, with 95 to 99% biomass reduction of three- to four-leaf barnyardgrass and 88 to 92% biomass reduction of one- to three-tiller barnyardgrass. UAN did not generally increase efficacy on hemp sesbania, as control was 90% or higher with treatments containing either herbicide and a recommended adjuvant. Adding UAN did not increase efficacy on broadleaf signalgrass. Broadleaf signalgrass control was highly variable and no treatment provided more than 65% biomass reduction.

Research trials conducted at two locations in the spring of 2004 evaluated the effect of soil temperature as an indicator for application timings of certain sulfonylurea herbicides for perennial ryegrass control while maintaining acceptable turfgrass quality during bermudagrass spring transition. Herbicide application timings began when soil temperatures reached 17 C (April 14, 2004). Greater perennial ryegrass control 4 wk after initial treatment (WAIT) was achieved when sulfonylurea herbicides were applied at 26 C soil temperature compared to 17 or 21 C. Bermudagrass density 6 WAIT increased with treatments applied at 26 C soil temperature compared to cooler soil temperatures. There was a decrease in overall turfgrass quality 2 WAIT when treatments were applied at 17 C. However, by 4 WAIT all application timings provided overall turfgrass quality comparable to the untreated control. Acceptable turfgrass quality and maximum perennial ryegrass control was achieved by delaying transition-aid herbicide applications until soil temperatures reached 26 C and growing conditions were more conducive to bermudagrass growth.

Weed management in furrow-irrigated corn is challenging because of weed emergence associated with each irrigation event. Residual herbicides that provide extended in-season control of a broad spectrum of weeds would be beneficial to producers in this system. Field experiments were conducted in 2005 and 2006 in Yellowstone County, Montana, to evaluate KIH-485 for the control of velvetleaf, kochia, and wild buckwheat in furrow-irrigated corn. KIH-485 was applied at three rates (166, 209, and 250 g ai/ha) and two timings (PRE and POST) and compared to standard rates of S-metolachlor, acetochlor, and pendimethalin. All PRE treatments were applied alone, whereas POST treatments were combined with 1,261 g ae/ha of glyphosate. All rates of KIH-485 applied PRE controlled velvetleaf and kochia 88% or greater at 4 mo after planting (MAP). Wild buckwheat was controlled 89% or greater with the high rate of KIH-485 applied PRE, which was superior to control achieved with any other PRE herbicide treatment. Velvetleaf, kochia, and wild buckwheat were controlled 91% or greater when any herbicide treatment was combined with glyphosate. Corn treated with KIH-485 applied at 209 g ai/ha PRE produced yield that was similar to that produced by the weed-free control in both years.

Field experiments were conducted at Warooka and Rudall on the Yorke and Eyre Peninsula of South Australia during 2004 and 2005 to investigate the effectiveness of metribuzin for the selective control of rigid brome in no-till sown barley. Metribuzin (135 to 203 g ai/ha) incorporated by sowing (IBS) was more effective in controlling rigid brome (> 67%) than the same herbicide dose applied POST. Although IBS metribuzin at the highest rate (270 g/ha) provided effective weed control (82 to 90%), it was more phytotoxic to barley, reducing crop density by 23% relative to the nontreated control at Rudall. Soil at Rudall had low clay and organic matter content. In contrast, tank mixtures of metribuzin (203 g/ha) with pendimethalin, applied IBS, provided reliable rigid brome control (89 to 93%) and resulted in little crop damage (< 5%). Over the site-by-year combinations studied, all herbicide-treated barley at Warooka and Rudall yielded 6 to 50% more grain than the nontreated crop. Although metribuzin provides growers with an opportunity to selectively control rigid brome in no-till barley, high rates (≥ 203 g/ha) of this herbicide on sandy textured soils can result in significant crop damage.

Research was conducted along the Texas Gulf Coast in 1998 and 1999 to determine trifloxysulfuron soil persistence and potential injury to corn, grain sorghum, rice, and soybeans. Trifloxysulfuron was applied at 0, 7.5, and 60 g/ha to plots 0, 15, 30, 60, and 90 d prior to planting of crops. Corn and grain sorghum were more sensitive to trifloxysulfuron than rice and soybeans when planted 0 to 90 d after treatment (DAT). Trifloxysulfuron was more persistent at the San Patricio location than at Fort Bend, which had a lower soil pH. However, no phytotoxicity or plant-height reduction was observed at the four locations with corn, grain sorghum, rice, and soybeans planted 209 to 312 DAT. Greenhouse data showed that neither corn nor sunflower planted 209 to 312 DAT were adversely affected by either rate of trifloxysulfuron. Trifloxysulfuron applied to cotton up to 20 g/ha the previous year should not cause phytotoxicity to corn, grain sorghum, rice, or soybeans when grown in rotation under soil and weather conditions similar to those in these studies.

Bahiagrass grown for foundation seed had become infested primarily with knotroot foxtail, and secondarily with yellow foxtail. Seed from both foxtail species are mechanically inseparable to certified seed standards from bahiagrass seed. Studies were conducted to determine if pendimethalin applied PRE, in combination with multiple POST applications of diclofop would sufficiently control and/or suppress foxtail seed head production so as to prevent contamination of the harvested bahiagrass seed. Neither pendimethalin nor multiple applications of diclofop were detrimental to bahiagrass seed head production. Although pendimethalin had no effect of knotroot foxtail seed head production, diclofop was effective. Depending on the year, between one and three POST applications of diclofop at 1.12 kg/ha each were effective in reducing, but not completely eliminating, knotroot foxtail seed head production in bahiagrass.

Selected fatty acids, such as pelargonic acid and caprylic acid, are effective nonselective herbicides for a wide spectrum of annual weed species. Greenhouse and field studies evaluated the potential of certain food-grade organic acids to enhance herbicide activity of pelargonic acid-based formulations. The addition of diammonium succinate and succinic acid improved the efficacy of a pelargonic acid formulation from 117 to 200% in the greenhouse. L-Lactic acid and glycolic acid enhanced the efficacy of pelargonic acid formulations on velvetleaf and common lambsquarters in the greenhouse by 126 to 168% and in the field by 117 to 138%. Thus, combinations of fatty and organic acids with selected emulsifiers can be highly effective as safe, nonselective herbicides.

Bensulfuron-methyl (BSM) has been one of the most widely used herbicides in Chilean rice fields because it controls a wide spectrum of weeds and does not require field drainage for application. However, failures of BSM to control water plantain in rice fields have been noted since 2002. We assessed BSM effects on suspected resistant (CU1 and CU2) and susceptible (AN1) water plantain accessions collected in Chilean rice fields during 2004 and 2005. BSM rates resulting in 50% growth reduction () of CU2 and CU1 plants were 12- and 33-fold higher than for AN1 plants, respectively. Acetolactate synthase (ALS) activity assays in vitro suggested resistance in CU1 and CU2 was due to an ALS enzyme with reduced BSM sensitivity compared to the AN1 biotype. Resistance indices (RI), or ratios of the resistant to susceptiblevalues (BSM rate to inhibit ALS-enzyme activity by 50%), were 266 (CU2/AN1) and > 38,462 (CU1/AN1). This agreed with in vivo ALS activity assays where RI were 224 (CU2/AN1) and > 8,533 (CU1/AN1). Resistance levels detected in whole-plant or in vivo ALS activity assays were orders of magnitude lower than those detected in in vitro ALS activity studies suggesting nontarget site mechanisms may have mitigated BSM toxicity. However, a consistent ranking of BSM sensitivity levels (AN1 > CU2 > CU1) throughout all three types of assays suggests resistance is primarily endowed by low target site sensitivity. We conclude that susceptible and resistant water plantain biotypes coexist in Chilean paddies, and the use of integrated weed management involving herbicides with a different mode of action would be imperative to prevent further evolution of resistance to BSM and possibly cross-resistance to other ALS inhibitors. In vitro ALS-enzyme assays provided the best discrimination of resistance levels between biotypes.

Experiments were conducted at Manhattan, KS in 2005 and 2006 to evaluate cotton response to simulated 2,4-D and dicamba drift rates at different stages of growth and multiple applications of 2,4-D. Cotton was treated with 2,4-D and dicamba at 0, 1/200, and 1/400 of the use rate (561 g ae/ha) when plants were at the three- to four-leaf, 8-, 14-, or 18-node growth stages. Injury symptoms after 2,4-D and dicamba application were more severe at the three- to four-leaf stage compared with other stages with greatest injury from 2,4-D. In general, plants partially recovered from 2,4-D and dicamba injury symptoms, and only 2,4-D applied at the 1/200 rate reduced fiber yield. In a separate study, cotton was treated with 2,4-D at 0, 1/400, 1/800, and 1/1,200 of the use rate for one, two, or three applications. Yield reduction increased as herbicide rate increased from 1/1,200 to 1/400 and the number of applications increased from one to three. In both studies, plants partially or fully recovered from injury symptoms and recovery was greater with dicamba than 2,4-D. Correlation coefficient analysis showed that visual injury ratings later in the growing season are a good predictor of yield reduction (R 2 = 0.58).

Field experiments were conducted in Georgia in 2004 and 2005 to evaluate the effects of S-metolachlor on summer squash fruit yield. Main treatment effects included summer squash cultivar (yellow or zucchini), planting method (seeded or transplanted) and herbicide program (nontreated control, S-metolachlor applied at planting and prior to transplanting [PRE] at 0.5 and 1.0 kg ai/ha, S-metolachlor applied postemergence [POST] 3 wk after planting [WAP] at 0.5 and 1.0 kg/ha, and S-metolachlor applied PRE at 0.5 kg/ha followed by POST at 0.5 kg/ha [PRE fb POST]). Fruit number and weight were measured 12 times during each growing season and the harvests combined into early (harvests 1 to 4), middle (harvests 5 to 8), late (harvests 9 to 12), and cumulative (harvests 1 to 12) yield categories. Mixed-models analyses were used to evaluate the effects of herbicide rate and timing, squash cultivar, and planting method on squash yield for each harvest period. Summer squash cultivar and planting method did not affect squash response to S-metolachlor. Averaged over squash cultivar and planting method, S-metolachlor applied PRE and PRE fb POST reduced fruit number and weight at the early harvest between 35 and 60%, middle harvest between 14 and 30%, and cumulative harvest between 14 and 22%. S-metolachlor applied POST at 0.5 kg/ha did not impact squash yield compared to the nontreated control at any harvest period, whereas 1.0 kg/ha reduced fruit number and weight at the middle harvest 14 and 20%, respectively. We propose that POST applications of S-metolachlor at 0.5 kg/ha or lower can be adopted for use in summer squash production in Georgia.

Field experiments were conducted in Missouri in 2004 through 2006 to compare the efficacy of fall and spring herbicide treatments for control of winter and summer annual weeds in no-tillage corn. Applications in the fall and 45 d before planting (45 PP) of 2,4-D and simazine; rimsulfuron, thifensulfuron, and 2,4-D; or glyphosate and 2,4-D controlled at least 90% of all winter annual weeds through 1 wk after corn planting (WAP), with a few exceptions. Applications made 30 d before planting (30 PP) of 2,4-D and glyphosate or rimsulfuron, thifensulfuron, and 2,4-D provided greater than 90% control of most winter annual weeds 1 WAP. Winter annual weed control was reduced with herbicide treatments applied 7 d before planting (7 PP), compared with earlier application timings. Summer annual weed control 5 WAP increased as the time between application and planting decreased. Fall applications resulted in greater weed biomass 5 WAP, compared with spring applications.

Acetolactate synthase (ALS)–inhibiting herbicides are often used to control Italian ryegrass in winter wheat in Texas. An Italian ryegrass biotype near Waco, TX was evaluated for resistance to mesosulfuron in field and greenhouse experiments. Control of the biotype in the field was less than 10% with the label rate of mesosulfuron (15 g ai/ha). Greenhouse studies confirmed that the biotype was resistant to mesosulfuron; control of the biotype was less than 35% at 120 g ai/ha mesosulfuron. The herbicide dose required to reduce plant biomass of a susceptible and the Waco biotype by 50% (GR50) was 1.3 and 31 g ai/ha, respectively, indicating a resistance level of 24-fold in the Waco biotype. However, the Waco biotype was controlled with the acetyl-CoA carboxylase inhibitors diclofop and pinoxaden.

Rattail fescue infestations are increasing in dryland conservation-tillage winter wheat cropping systems in the inland Pacific Northwest (PNW) region of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. Rattail fescue typically is controlled with cultivation in conventional tillage farming systems. However, reduced soil disturbance has allowed infestations to increase significantly. The objectives of this research were to determine the effectiveness of glyphosate rates and application timings on control of rattail fescue during a chemical-fallow period in winter wheat cropping systems. Chemical-fallow field studies were conducted during two growing seasons at nine sites throughout the PNW. Glyphosate was applied early POST, late POST, or sequentially in early plus late POST timings. Additionally, paraquat + diuron was applied early and late POST alone or sequentially with glyphosate. Sequential application treatments (glyphosate followed by [fb] glyphosate, paraquat + diuron fb glyphosate, and glyphosate fb paraquat + diuron) controlled rattail fescue (∼ 94% in Idaho and Washington, ∼ 74% in Oregon) and reduced panicle number (∼ 85% in Idaho, ∼ 30% in Oregon and Washington) equivalent to or greater than one-time treatments. Rattail fescue control and panicle reduction generally increased with increasing rates of glyphosate within application timings. Paraquat + diuron usually provided similar control and reduced rattail fescue panicle number compared to glyphosate treatments applied at the same application timing. Although not completely effective, sequential applications of either glyphosate or paraquat + diuron, fb glyphosate will provide effective control during chemical fallow.

Populations of plumeless thistle and musk thistle were mowed at various growth stages at two separate sites in Maryland during a 6-yr period to elucidate relationships among seed rain, soil seed banks, and population recruitment. The majority of seeds (96%) in the soil profile were distributed within 7.6 cm of the surface at both sites. Mowing plumeless thistle when most of the flower heads were at the full bud or postbloom stage did not reduce seed bank or plant densities, unlike mowing at full bloom, which significantly and quickly reduced both. Musk thistle responded differently, with plant density declining only with the postbloom mowing treatment, which occurred after the parent plant had dispersed seeds and died. Seed bank densities were unchanged by this treatment. This indicates that other factors may limit the recruitment and maintenance of musk thistle, such as allelochemical production by parents and interspecific plant competition. Density of musk thistle declined over an 11-yr period at one monitoring site, whereas plumeless thistle remained unchanged. The disproportionate seed-destroying activities of the weed biological control agent Rhinocyllus conicus on musk thistle may explain this difference.

Field and laboratory experiments were conducted in New Jersey to investigate the influence of spray adjuvants on foliar absorption and efficacy of bispyribac–sodium on annual bluegrass, creeping bentgrass, and perennial ryegrass. In laboratory experiments on annual bluegrass, 14C–bispyribac–sodium without an adjuvant had 25% foliar absorption by 8 h after treatment, whereas absorption increased to 45, 46, and 75% when applied with crop oil concentrate, nonionic surfactant, and methylated seed oil, respectively. In creeping bentgrass fairways, sequential bispyribac–sodium applications at 37 g ai/ha with spray adjuvants controlled annual bluegrass similarly to 74 g ai/ha applied sequentially without adjuvants. In perennial ryegrass, treatments with methylated seed oil and nonionic surfactant required 25 and 41% lower bispyribac–sodium rates, respectively, to obtain annual bluegrass control levels comparable to bispyribac–sodium rates without adjuvants. Spray adjuvants did not exacerbate turf-grass discoloration from bispyribac–sodium. Overall, spray-adjuvant use with bispyribac–sodium may allow practitioners to reduce application rates and enhance efficacy for annual bluegrass control.

Greenhouse studies were conducted to evaluate the nature of the cotton postemergence (POST) herbicides followed by (fb) MSMA postemergence-directed (LAYBY) for foliar and tuber reduction of yellow and purple nutsedge when applied to nutsedge at two different application timings. Trifloxysulfuron at 4 and 6 g ai/ha fb MSMA LAYBY reduced 10- to 15- and 20- to 30-cm purple and yellow nutsedge root and shoot dry weights by at least 56%. However, the effect of weed size at the time of application was significant for trifloxysulfuron at 6 g/ha for percent root and shoot reductions in yellow nutsedge and percent root reduction in purple nutsedge. Significance of herbicide rate was only observed for percent shoot and root reduction of 10- to 15-cm yellow nutsedge. Trifloxysulfuron treatments reduced purple and yellow nutsedge shoot and root dry weights equivalent to treatments involving glyphosate POST fb MSMA LAYBY. MSMA at 1,120 and 2,240 g/ha and glufosinate POST fb MSMA LAYBY were effective for reducing purple and yellow nutsedge shoot dry weights, although percent reduction was influenced by nutsedge height at herbicide application. Treatments involving pyrithiobac POST fb MSMA LAYBY slightly increased 10- to 15-cm yellow nutsedge root dry weights. MSMA at either rate produced additive responses when included in tank mixtures with trifloxysulfuron at either rate or pyrithiobac POST fb MSMA LAYBY in yellow nutsedge. Other tank mixes or sequential combinations did not cause additive or synergistic responses.

Field studies were conducted in different peanut-growing areas of Texas during the 1999 through 2001 growing seasons to evaluate yellow nutsedge control and peanut tolerance to diclosulam alone applied PRE, S-metolachlor alone applied POST, or diclosulam applied PRE followed by (fb) S-metolachlor applied POST. Yellow nutsedge control was > 80% at five of six locations when diclosulam at 0.018 or 0.026 kg/ha applied PRE was fb S-metolachlor applied POST at 0.56, 1.12, or 1.46 kg ai/ha. Peanut stunting was noted with diclosulam at the High Plains locations but not at the Rolling Plains or south Texas locations. This stunting with diclosulam was due to a combination of peanut variety and high soil pH. Peanut yield was not always increased where yellow nutsedge was controlled.

Several field observations and limited research have confirmed that sulfonylurea herbicides commonly used in warm-season turf can laterally relocate via turf equipment and injure neighboring cool-season grasses. This phenomenon is referred to as ‘tracking’ among turf managers and often occurs when mowers traverse treated areas and adjacent creeping bentgrass putting greens, fairways, and tee boxes while foliage is wet with dew. Tracked flazasulfuron and metsulfuron at 9 and 42 g/ha, respectively, caused little injury to creeping bentgrass. Flazasulfuron at 26 and 53 g/ha, and foramsulfuron at 28 g ai/ha tracked while dew was present 20 h after treatment (HAT) resulted in the most noticeable creeping bentgrass injury when tracked. Flazasulfuron at higher rates and foramsulfuron tracked 20 HAT on dew-covered turf reduced turf color compared to nontracked turf. When the mower traversed dry turf at 6 HAT and wet turf at 68 HAT, turf color was reduced less than wet turf tracked 20 HAT. Length of track and creeping bentgrass injury decreased with flazasulfuron rate. When using flazasulfuron at rates between 9 and 53 g/ha, a 1.5- and 4.5-m border, respectively, around creeping bentgrass would eliminate most injury from tracked herbicide.

A field experiment was conducted in Okinawa, Japan from 2005 to 2007 to evaluate the effect of purple nutsedge and other weeds on turmeric growth and yield and determine the effective weed-control period to minimize crop interference. Treatments consisted of all weeds removed at 70, 115, and 160 d sequentially after planting (DAP), all weeds except purple nutsedge removed at these three dates, plus weedy and weed-free controls. Purple nutsedge density increased until 115 DAP when grown alone with turmeric and thereafter decreased markedly, whereas it increased only until 70 DAP when grown with other weeds. Weed reinfestation in turmeric that was sequentially weeded was high until 115 DAP, but thereafter was negligible. In the weedy control, the weed infestation was severe until 160 DAP. Plant height and leaf and tiller number per plant of turmeric increased rapidly from 70 to 160 DAP. Season-long weed infestation significantly reduced shoot biomass and rhizome yield of turmeric, but both were similarly high among treatments of weed-free turmeric, all weed removal, and removal of all weeds except purple nutsedge. Purple nutsedge (> 3,000 plants/m2) did not significantly reduce turmeric yield, whereas the combined weed species reduced yield by greater than 40%. Thus, crop interference by purple nutsedge was not high, and other weeds could be removed during 70 to 160 DAP for reduced labor requirements and higher yield of turmeric.

Experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of application rate, growth stage, and tank mixing azimsulfuron, bentazon, MCPA, propanil, or cyhalofop on the efficacy of bispyribac–sodium against early watergrass and late watergrass from rice fields in northern Greece. Mixtures of bispyribac–sodium with the insecticides carbaryl, diazinon, and dichlorvos were also evaluated. Bispyribac–sodium (24 to 36 g ai/ha) applied alone at the three- to four-leaf growth stage provided 89 to 100% control of early watergrass and 84 to 100% control of late watergrass. When bispyribac–sodium was applied alone at the five- to six-leaf growth stage of early watergrass and late watergrass, control ranged from 78 to 100% and 71 to 100%, respectively. Mixtures of bispyribac–sodium with azimsulfuron provided better control of both species at any growth stage than bispyribac–sodium applied alone. On the contrary, mixtures of bispyribac–sodium with bentazon, MCPA, or propanil were less effective on both species at any growth stage than bispyribac–sodium applied alone. A slight efficacy reduction occurred on both species for the mixture of bispyribac–sodium with cyhalofop. Mixtures of bispyribac–sodium with the insecticides carbaryl or dichlorvos showed reduced efficacy on both species, whereas increased efficacy on both species was observed for mixtures of bispyribac–sodium with diazinon as compared with the single application of bispyribac–sodium.