Auxinic herbicides are widely used for control of broadleaf weeds in cereal crops and turfgrass. These herbicides are structurally similar to the natural plant hormone auxin, and induce several of the same physiological and biochemical responses at low concentrations. After several decades of research to understand the auxin signal transduction pathway, the receptors for auxin binding and resultant biochemical and physiological responses have recently been discovered in plants. However, the precise mode of action for the auxinic herbicides is not completely understood despite their extensive use in agriculture for over six decades. Auxinic herbicide-resistant weed biotypes offer excellent model species for uncovering the mode of action as well as resistance to these compounds. Compared with other herbicide families, the incidence of resistance to auxinic herbicides is relatively low, with only 29 auxinic herbicide-resistant weed species discovered to date. The relatively low incidence of resistance to auxinic herbicides has been attributed to the presence of rare alleles imparting resistance in natural weed populations, the potential for fitness penalties due to mutations conferring resistance in weeds, and the complex mode of action of auxinic herbicides in sensitive dicot plants. This review discusses recent advances in the auxin signal transduction pathway and its relation to auxinic herbicide mode of action. Furthermore, comprehensive information about the genetics and inheritance of auxinic herbicide resistance and case studies examining mechanisms of resistance in auxinic herbicide-resistant broadleaf weed biotypes are provided. Within the context of recent findings pertaining to auxin biology and mechanisms of resistance to auxinic herbicides, agronomic implications of the evolution of resistance to these herbicides are discussed in light of new auxinic herbicide-resistant crops that will be commercialized in the near future.

Persistence of the soil seed bank requires both dormancy and resistance to seed decay organisms. However, there is little or no information evaluating biochemical responses of dormant weed seeds to pathogens. Wild oat caryopses were incubated with four pathogenic fungal isolates to evaluate the response of the pathogen defense enzyme, polyphenol oxidase (PPO). Caryopsis PPO activity was induced by three Fusarium spp. isolates previously obtained from whole seeds incubated in the field whereas caryopsis PPO activity was decreased by a Pythium isolate. Fusarium avenaceum isolate F.a.1 caused the greatest PPO induction and was studied in more detail. When whole wild oat seeds were incubated on F.a.1, PPO activity was induced in seeds, hulls (lemma and palea), and caryopses. Incubation of whole seeds on F.a.1 gradually induced caryopsis PPO activity over an 8-d period, whereas incubation of caryopses on F.a.1 over a 4-d period caused a greater and more rapid induction of PPO activity. Very little PPO activity could be leached from untreated caryopses, but nearly all of the induced PPO activity in F.a.1-treated caryopses was readily leached when incubated in buffer. In Western blots, both untreated and F.a.1-treated leachates contained a ∼57-kilodalton (kD) protein, putatively the mature and relatively inactive form of PPO. However, lower molecular weight antigenic proteins between ∼52 and ∼25 kD were strongly induced in F.a.1-treated caryopses, with this induction being correlated with the increase in PPO activity. We hypothesize that dormant weed seeds possess biochemical defenses against pathogens and, more specifically, that proteolysis in the presence of fungal pathogens may release an activated form of PPO from the surface of wild oat caryopses and hulls.

Annual bluegrass is a pervasive weed on golf courses in the Transition Zone of the United States and is difficult to selectively remove. For years, superintendents have applied glyphosate on dormant zoysiagrass to remove cool-season weeds. In 2007, a population of annual bluegrass in Columbia, MO, was not controlled with glyphosate after more than 10 yr of continuous applications. Greenhouse studies were established to compare the response of suspect glyphosate-resistant (CCMO1) and -susceptible annual bluegrass to glyphosate. Seedling plants were treated with glyphosate from 0 to 6.27 kg ae ha−1. At 21 d after treatment, reductions in biomass for susceptible annual bluegrass reached a maximum at glyphosate rates of 0.78 kg ha−1 or higher. Comparatively, the biomass of CCMO1 plants was only reduced by 50% at 0.78 kg ha−1, and reductions did not exceed 60% at rates up to 6.27 kg ha−1, which is eight times the labeled rate. At rates necessary to reduce plant dry weights by 50%, the resistance factor (RF) for CCMO1 was 5.2. Twenty-one days following biomass assessment, regrowth of plants was non-existent on susceptible plants at 0.78 kg ha−1 glyphosate or above, but CCMO1 plants reached 1.7 cm regrowth at the 6.27 kg ha−1 rate. Based on the regrowth, the RF for CCMO1 was 5.2. Results indicate a new species has been identified with resistance to glyphosate, and this represents the first report of glyphosate resistance in turfgrass.

The bentgrasses comprise an adaptable group of grasses that include introduced species, cultivated turfgrasses, and native plants in North America. Their distribution in cultural landscapes has not been documented, and this gap in knowledge has limited the development of predictive ecological risk assessments for creeping bentgrass engineered for herbicide resistance. In this study, bentgrass distribution and abundance were surveyed in 289 plots in an 8.5 km2 site surrounding a golf course in the northeastern United States. Four introduced species and two native bentgrasses were identified in seminatural and managed plant communities. Across the study site, 77% of the plots containing creeping bentgrass also had invasive plants. Bentgrasses co-occurred with critical habitat for threatened or endangered animals. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that bentgrasses were positively correlated with herbaceous plant cover and mowing, but negatively correlated with tree canopy cover, shrub cover, poorly drained soils, and leaf litter. The most influential ecological factors were tree canopy cover and soil moisture. Geospatial information about these two ecological factors was combined with mathematical models to generate two habitat suitability maps. The favorable environments map (FEM) showed that highly suitable bentgrass habitat covered 36% of the study site and included common features such as home lawns and railroad right-of-ways. Our results suggest that release of herbicide-resistant creeping bentgrass in this cultural landscape could potentially result in pollen-mediated gene flow, interspecific hybridization, environmental hazards, and herbicide selection pressure in some areas. Habitat suitability maps could be critical tools for predictive ecological risk assessments, monitoring projects, and management of herbicide-resistant bentgrasses.

Mesotrione, topramezone, and tembotrione inhibit 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD), an enzyme integral to carotenoid biosynthesis. Research was conducted to evaluate the response of hybrid bermudagrass following mesotrione (280, 350, and 420 g ai ha−1), topramezone (18, 25, and 38 g ai ha−1), and tembotrione (92, 184, and 276 g ai ha−1) applications. Measurements of visual bleaching (VB) and chlorophyll fluorescence yield (Fv/Fm) were evaluated 3, 5, 7, 14, 21, 28, and 35 d after application (DAA). Leaf tissues were sampled on the same dates and assayed for chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Responses of plants treated with topramezone and tembotrione were similar; these herbicides caused more VB and greater reductions in Fv/Fm, total chlorophyll, lutein, and xanthophyll cycle pigment concentrations than mesotrione 5 to 21 DAA. Increasing mesotrione application rate did not increase VB or lead to greater reductions in total chlorophyll, lutein, or xanthophyll pigment concentrations. Alternatively, increasing topramezone and tembotrione application rates above 18 and 92 g ha−1, respectively, extended VB and pigment reductions. Of the three HPPD-inhibitors tested, topramezone was the most active, because the low (18 g ha−1) rate of topramezone reduced lutein and total xanthophyll pigment concentrations more than the low rate of tembotrione (92 g ha−1) during periods of maximum activity (14 to 21 DAA). No necrosis was observed with any of the treatments, suggesting tank mixtures of topramezone with other herbicides might be required to provide long-term control of hybrid bermudagrass.

Saflufenacil is a PRE herbicide for the control of broadleaf weeds. Field and growth room studies were conducted to explore the tolerance of corn to POST treatments of saflufenacil and BAS 781. Additionally, the potential use of sodium as a safener for saflufenacil was evaluated. Crop injury caused by saflufenacil or BAS 781 was 8 and 38%, respectively, when applied at twice the recommended dose at the spike to two-leaf stage of crop growth. This injury increased to 28 and 65%, respectively, when applied at the three- to four-leaf stage. This level of crop injury resulted in yield loss, particularly when applied at the three- to four-leaf stage. The addition of Na-bentazon to saflufenacil reduced this injury and increased crop dry weight under both field and laboratory conditions. In the field, Na-bentazon also increased corn collar height and yield compared with saflufenacil applied alone. Na-bentazon reduced injury through a reduction in foliar uptake of saflufenacil. Sodium derived from baking soda also provided a safening effect, but only at the lowest dose of saflufenacil tested.

Weed-suppressive soils contain naturally occurring microorganisms that suppress a weed by inhibiting its growth, development, and reproductive potential. Increased knowledge of microbe–weed interactions in such soils could lead to the identification of management practices that create or enhance soil suppressiveness to weeds. Velvetleaf death and growth suppression was observed in a research field (fieldA) that was planted with high populations of velvetleaf, which may have developed via microbial mediated plant–soil feedback. Greenhouse studies were conducted with soil collected from fieldA (soilA) to determine if it was biologically suppressive to velvetleaf. In one study, mortality of velvetleaf grown for 8 wk in soilA was greatest (86%) and biomass was smallest (0.3 g plant−1) in comparison to soils collected from surrounding fields with similar structure and nutrient content, indicating that suppressiveness of soilA was not likely caused by physical or chemical factors. When soilA was autoclaved in another study, mortality of velvetleaf plants in the heat-treated soil was reduced to 4% compared to 55% for the untreated soil, thus suggesting that suppressiveness of soilA is biological in nature. A third set of experiments showed that suppressiveness to velvetleaf could be transferred to an autoclaved soil by amending the autoclaved soil with untreated soilA; this provided additional evidence for a biological basis for the effects of soilA. The suppressive condition in these greenhouse experiments was associated with high soil populations of fusaria. Fusarium lateritium was the most frequently isolated fungus from roots of diseased velvetleaf plants collected from fieldA, and also was the most virulent when inoculated onto velvetleaf seedlings. Results of this research indicate that velvetleaf suppression can occur naturally in the field and that F. lateritium is an important cause of velvetleaf mortality in fieldA.

Controlled environment experiments showed that velvetleaf plants grown under drought stress or low temperature (LT) treatments had greater leaf epicuticular wax (ECW) deposition compared to plants grown in soil with moisture at field capacity (FC) or a high temperature (HT) regime. Light intensity did not affect ECW deposition; however, increasing light intensity decreased the leaf ECW ester content and increased the secondary alcohol content. Plants grown at an LT regime or under FC had leaf ECW with fewer hydrocarbons and more esters than those grown at an HT or drought stress regime. Velvetleaf absorption of acifluorfen increased as light intensity decreased for plants grown in adequate soil water content, while the opposite was true for drought-stressed plants. Velvetleaf absorption of acifluorfen was approximately 3 and 10 times greater, respectively, with the addition of 28% urea ammonium nitrate (UAN) in comparison to crop oil concentrate (COC) or no adjuvant, regardless of the environmental treatments. Plants absorbed more acifluorfen when subjected to the LT regime in comparison to the HT regime when UAN was the adjuvant, while the opposite was true when COC was the adjuvant. Velvetleaf absorption of acifluorfen was not affected by drought stress when COC or no adjuvant was used and varied between studies when UAN was used. Velvetleaf absorption of bentazon was greatest for plants grown under HT/FC or high light/FC treatments and least with plants grown under HT/drought stress or low light/drought stress treatments, regardless of the adjuvant. However, bentazon absorption was higher with the addition of an adjuvant and for plants grown at a high light intensity or FC condition compared with medium to low light intensity or drought stress treatments.

Saflufenacil (Kixor™) is a new protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase (PPO) inhibiting herbicide for preplant burndown and selective PRE dicot weed control in multiple crops, including corn. The biokinetic properties and the mechanism of selectivity of saflufenacil in corn, black nightshade, and tall morningglory were investigated. After root treatment of plants at the third-leaf stage, the difference in the phytotoxic selectivity of saflufenacil in corn and the weed species has been quantified as approximately 10-fold. The plant species showed similar selectivity after foliar applications; the plant response to saflufenacil was approximately 100-fold more sensitive compared with a root application. PPO enzyme activity in vitro was inhibited by saflufenacil, a 50% inhibition lay in a concentration range from 0.2 to 2.0 nM, with no clear differences between corn and the weed species. Treatments of light-grown plants and dark-grown seedlings with [14C]saflufenacil revealed that the herbicide is rapidly absorbed by root and shoot tissue. The [14C]saflufenacil was distributed within the plant systemically by acropetal and basipetal movement. Systemic [14C]saflufenacil distribution can be explained by the weak acid character of saflufenacil and its metabolic stability in black nightshade and tall morningglory. Metabolism of [14C]saflufenacil in corn was more rapid than in the weeds. In addition, low translocation of root-absorbed [14C]saflufenacil in the corn shoot was observed. It is concluded that rapid metabolism, combined with a low root translocation, support PRE selectivity of saflufenacil in corn.

Natural herbicides approved in organic agriculture are primarily nonselective burn-down essential oils applied POST. Multiple applications are often required due to their low efficacy. To address this problem, the in vivo herbicidal activity of manuka oil, the essential oil distilled from manuka tree (Leptospermum scoparium J.R. and G. Forst), was tested on selected broadleaf and grass weeds. While manuka oil exhibited good POST activity when applied in combination with a commercial lemongrass oil–based herbicide, it ultimately demonstrated interesting PRE activity, providing control of large crabgrass seedlings at a rate of 3 L ha−1. Manuka oil and its main active ingredient, leptospermone, were stable in soil for up to 7 d and had half-lives of 18 and 15 d, respectively. The systemic activity of manuka oil addresses many of the current limitations associated with natural herbicides. Additionally, its soil persistence opens up a multitude of new possibilities for the use of manuka oil as a tool for weed management and may be a potential bridge between traditional and organic agriculture.

Resistance in waterhemp to herbicides that inhibit protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO) previously was shown to result from the deletion of a glycine codon at position 210 (ΔG210) in the PPO-encoding gene, PPX2. Research was conducted to determine if this same mechanism accounted for resistance in geographically separated populations—from Illinois, Kansas, and Missouri—and, if so, to determine if the mutation conferring resistance was independently selected. A dose–response study with lactofen indicated that the resistant populations had different levels of resistance. These differences, however, could be accounted for by different frequencies of resistant individuals within populations and, therefore, the dose–response data were consistent with the hypothesis that the populations contained the same resistance mechanism. Direct evidence in support of this hypothesis was provided by DNA sequencing, which showed that nearly all resistant plants evaluated contained the ΔG210 mutation. A variable region of the PPX2 gene was sequenced and resulting sequences were aligned and organized into a phylogenetic tree. The phylogenetic tree did not reveal clear clustering by either geography or phenotype (resistant vs. sensitive). Possibly recombination within the PPX2 gene has masked its evolutionary history.

Knowledge of the soil nitrogen (N) supply and the N mineralization potential of the soil combined with an understanding of weed-crop competition in response to soil nutrient levels may be used to optimize N fertilizer rates to increase the competitive advantage of crop species. A greenhouse study (2006) and field studies (2007 to 2008) in Illinois and Nebraska were conducted to quantify the growth and interference of maize and velvetleaf in response to varying synthetic N fertilizer rates in soils with high and low N mineralization potential. Natural soils were classified as having “low mineralization potential” (LMP), while soils amended with composted manure were classified as having “high mineralization potential” (HMP). Maize and velvetleaf were grown in monoculture or in mixture in both LMP and HMP soils and fertilized with zero, medium, or full locally recommended N rate. In the greenhouse, velvetleaf interference in maize with respect to plant biomass increased as N rate increased in the HMP soil, whereas increasing N rate in the LMP soil reduced velvetleaf interference. In contrast, velvetleaf interference in maize decreased as N rate increased regardless of soil class in the field experiment. With respect to grain yield, velvetleaf interference in maize was unaffected by N rate or soil class. In both greenhouse and field experiments, velvetleaf biomass was greater in the HMP soil class, whereas maize interference in velvetleaf was generally greater in the LMP soil class. While soil N levels influenced weed-crop interference in the greenhouse, the results of the field study demonstrate the difficulty of controlling soil nutrient dynamics in the field and support a maize fertilization strategy independent of weed N use considerations.

Johnsongrass is one of the most troublesome weeds of the world and is listed as a noxious weed in Arkansas. Reduced johnsongrass control with the recommended application rate of glyphosate (840 g ae ha−1) was reported in a continuous soybean field near West Memphis, AR, in the fall of 2007. A greenhouse study was conducted (1) to confirm and characterize glyphosate resistance in the johnsongrass biotype from West Memphis and (2) to determine whether resistant and susceptible biotypes have differential glyphosate absorption or translocation. Dose–response studies revealed that the resistant biotype was five- to seven-fold less sensitive to glyphosate than the susceptible biotype. Glyphosate absorption was similar in resistant and susceptible biotypes at 72 h after treatment (HAT). However, the treated leaf of the resistant biotype retained 28 percentage points more absorbed 14C glyphosate compared to the susceptible biotype at 72 HAT. Additionally, the resistant biotype had less 14C glyphosate translocated to the aboveground tissue below the treated leaf and to roots compared to the susceptible biotype at 24 and 72 HAT. Reduced translocation and increased retention of glyphosate in treated leaves is a probable mechanism of resistance in this glyphosate-resistant johnsongrass biotype.

Solanum viarum, commonly known as tropical soda apple (TSA), is native to Brazil and Argentina but has become a harmful weed in many countries with tropical climates. This study was conducted to reassess the seed biology of TSA found in South Africa. Cold stratification (14 d), acid scarification (20% H2SO4 for 5 min), and sandpaper scarification (30 s) significantly improved percentage germination when compared to the control. The highest germination (99.5%) was achieved when seeds were germinated in 50% Hoagland's nutrient solution (HS). The lowest germination (66%) was recorded in the absence of phosphorus (P) under alternating light conditions. HS without nitrogen (N) completely inhibited seed germination of TSA under constant light conditions. These findings are useful in controlling TSA by amending the levels of N and P in soils. Seed germination of TSA was significantly enhanced by different concentrations of smoke-water and butenolide solution. Smoke-water dilution of 1:500 v/v and butenolide concentration of 10−8M showed the highest seedling vigor indices (6,688 and 6,666, respectively) in comparison to the control (1,251) and gibberellic acid (GA3) concentrations (< 5,327). These findings suggest that germination of seeds or seedbanks of TSA might be successfully stimulated using smoke solutions. Subsequently, patches of seedlings emerging after treatment can be mechanically uprooted to reduce the infestation of TSA. However, justifying this with field trials is essential.

Resistance to glufosinate has been confirmed in glyphosate-resistant Italian ryegrass populations collected in hazelnut orchards in Oregon. Dose–response, ammonia accumulation, and enzyme activity studies were conducted to test the sensitivity of three glyphosate-resistant and three susceptible Italian ryegrass populations to glufosinate. The glufosinate rates required to reduce the growth by 50% (GR50) were 0.15, 0.18, and 0.21 for the control populations C1, C2, and C3, respectively, whereas for the resistant populations OR1, OR2, and OR3, the GR50 values were 0.49, 0.42, and 0.40 kg ai ha−1, respectively, exhibiting an average resistance index of 2.4. The same trend was observed in ammonia accumulation studies between 48 and 96 h after glufosinate treatment where the susceptible populations accumulated on average two times more ammonia than the resistant populations. The glufosinate concentration required to reduce the glutamine synthetase enzyme activity by 50% (I50) was not different for the resistant and susceptible populations. The I50s ranged from 3.1 to 3.6 µM for the resistant populations and from 3.7 to 4.3 µM for the susceptible populations; therefore, an insensitive target site is not responsible for the glufosinate resistance.

Sourgrass is a perennial weed infesting annual and perennial crops in Brazil. Three biotypes (R1, R2, and R3) of sourgrass suspected to be glyphosate-resistant (R) and another one (S) from a natural area without glyphosate application, in Brazil, were tested for resistance to glyphosate based on screening, dose-response, and shikimic acid assays. Both screening and dose-response assays confirmed glyphosate resistance in the three sourgrass biotypes. Dose-response assay indicated a resistance factor of 2.3 for biotype R1 and 3.9 for biotypes R2 and R3. The hypothesis of a glyphosate resistance was corroborated on the basis of shikimic acid accumulation, where the S biotype accumulated 3.3, 5.0, and 5.7 times more shikimic acid than biotypes R1, R2, and R3, respectively, 168 h after treatment with 157.50 g ae ha−1 of glyphosate. There were no differences in contact angle of spray droplets on leaves and spray retention, indicating that differential capture of herbicide by leaves was not responsible for resistance in these biotypes. The results confirmed resistance of sourgrass to glyphosate in Brazil.

The increase in atmospheric CO2 levels can influence the growth of many invasive exotic plant species. However, it is not well-documented, especially for C4 plants, how these growth responses will alter the effectiveness of the world's most widely used herbicide for weed control, glyphosate. We aimed to address this question by carrying out a series of glasshouse experiments to determine if tolerance to glyphosate is increased in four C4 invasive exotic grasses grown under elevated CO2 in nonlimiting water conditions. In addition, traits including specific leaf area, leaf weight ratio, leaf area ratio, root : shoot ratio, total leaf area, and total biomass were measured in order to assess their contribution to glyphosate response under ambient and elevated CO2 levels. Three of the four mature grass species that were treated with the recommended concentration of glyphosate displayed increased tolerance to glyphosate under elevated CO2. This was due to increased biomass production resulting in a dilution effect on the glyphosate within the plant. From this study, we can conclude that as atmospheric CO2 levels increase, application rates of glyphosate might need to be increased to counteract the growth stimulation of invasive exotic plants.

Purple nutsedge is a troublesome C4 weed, characterized by high photosynthetic efficiency, compared to C3 weeds. As its dispersal is based on vegetative growth, accurate prediction of its growth could help in arriving at favorable management decisions. This article details the development and validation of predictive models of purple nutsedge spatial growth, based on temperature (thermal model), and temperature and radiation (photothermal model) measurements. Plants were grown in six experiments in the summers of 2008, 2009, and 2010, under different temperature and radiation conditions. Results indicate that under optimal temperatures, radiation becomes the main growth-limiting factor, and is highly related to the final leaf-cover area (R2 = 0.89). Comparison of the thermal and photothermal models showed that under all conditions, including varied temperature and radiation, the photothermal model performs significantly better, with differences in root-mean-square error values reaching up to 0.073, compared to 0.195 with the thermal model. Validation experiments confirmed the ability of the photothermal model to predict purple nutsedge spatial growth accurately.