Integrated Weed Management (IWM), a long time practice by farmers has become more commonly discussed as a total weed management system. Whether an off shoot of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) or a further recognition of integrating weed control measures within the cropping and farming system, it has become more widespread. IWM is being practiced using many of the same components, from croplands to forests and rangeland. A weed management hierarchy has been developed by degree of diversity of management practices. IWM researchers and educators should invite other pest management specialists to join us in striving for Integrated Crop Management systems.

Greenhouse and growth chamber experiments were conducted to determine the reasons for stunted growth and yield suppression of corn noticed sometimes in nicosulfuron-treated corn fields infested with heavy population of johnsongrass. Results indicated that in the absence of johnsongrass, nicosulfuron applied broadcast POST at 35 g ai ha−1 had no effect on corn. However, growth reduction of corn occurred when nicosulfuron-treated johnsongrass and corn were allowed to share the same rooting medium with their root systems intermingled. The reduction in growth was even greater when corn foliage or the soil surface were also treated with johnsongrass. The extent of growth reduction of corn growing with nicosulfuron-killed johnsongrass depended on weed density and herbicide application rate. Greater growth reductions occurred at four johnsongrass plants per pot compared to two and at a higher application rate of 100 μg nicosulfuron per plant. In general, johnsongrass killed by nicosulfuron appeared to be more phytotoxic to corn than plants killed by paraquat. Nicosulfuron provided excellent control of johnsongrass and improved corn growth by two to three times that of not controlling johnsongrass, but it could not elevate corn growth to the level obtained when johnsongrass was controlled by paraquat or in the absence of interference from johnsongrass.

Weed control in cole crops and onion by postemergence spraying with liquid ammonium nitrate was studied to determine its feasibility under Fraser Valley, British Columbia conditions. Ammonium nitrate solutions (7.5, 10, 15 and 20% N) were applied at 800 L ha−1 on warm, sunny days. Shepherd's-purse, low cudweed, redroot pigweed and ladysthumb were susceptible to this treatment; common lambsquarters, common purslane and annual bluegrass were tolerant. In order to determine the effect of weed density on weed control, several shepherd's-purse densities were established in broccoli and sprayed with ammonium nitrate solution (20% N; 800 L ha−1). Two days after treatment, weed control was 87.2% for an initial density of 500 shepherd's-purse plants m−2 (1987) and 76.1% for an initial density of 988 plants m−2 (1988). The seedlings that survived the treatment were sufficiently set back that they did not cause any adverse effect on crop yield. In a separate study, cabbage and onion were found to be tolerant to the ammonium nitrate treatment. Initially, cauliflower, broccoli and Brussels sprouts growth was slightly inhibited by the ammonium nitrate treatment but the plants recovered and crop yield was not affected.

Planting row crops into a stale seedbed has gained popularity in recent years. This concept uses tillage either after harvest in the fall or early in the spring to smooth the seedbed and eliminate ruts and excess residue on the soil surface. Tillage is not used immediately before planting, thus conserving moisture, eliminating costly and time-consuming tillage trips at planting, and allowing more timely planting. While stale seedbed planting minimizes tillage to establish the crop, conservation is not the primary objective of this concept; rather, timely stand establishment following adverse weather conditions has been the driving force behind the popularity of stale seedbed programs. The stale seedbed approach has been used with success on a variety of soils in the southern U.S., but is best suited on the poorly-drained clay soils in the Mississippi River Delta. The system has been adapted for use in soybean, cotton, corn, and rice. A key component of a well-prepared stale seedbed is the absence of weeds at planting. Producers must keep in mind that weeds present and not controlled at planting have the potential to significantly impair stand establishment and crop yields. Although these weeds are often beginning to senesce by the time soybean planting occurs, they are still using soil moisture and shading newly emerging crop plants early in the season.

Clomazone dissipation in soil was examined in field and laboratory experiments. Field studies suggested a potential for injury to rotational crops such as wheat. Field half-lives were 5 to 29 d (average of 9 field studies was 19 d) for the Etowah clay loam (fine-loamy, siliceous, thermic typic Paleudult) and Lily loam (fine-loamy, siliceous, thermic typic Hapludult) soils. Clomazone had an average half-life of 34 d under lab conditions, indicating slower dissipation in the lab than in the field. Clomazone was moderately adsorbed to soil as indicated by a Kd of about 1, and a Kom of 52 in the two soils.

Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola formulated with an organosilicone surfactant was tested as a potential bioherbicide for kudzu. Greenhouse studies were performed to determine the effect of kudzu plant age and leaf age on disease severity and growth of the bacterium in planta. Eight-week-old plants were more diseased 4 wk after spraying and had a higher potential for regrowth 7 wk after spraying than 12-wk-old plants. Young leaves developed water-soaked lesions earlier than older leaves and supported higher populations of bacteria. Data from field experiments at two separate locations indicated that single applications in late spring were as effective as multiple applications in early spring and were enhanced by repeat application. Three months after the beginning of the experiment, extensive regrowth occurred for all bioherbicide treatments and no differences were noted between treatments and the nontreated control.

WEEDSIM is a bioeconomic decision aid for management of annual weeds in corn and soybean. It was field-tested for 4 yr in Minnesota. The decision aid has two categories of management recommendations: soil-applied plus postemergence (PRE+), based on estimated weed seedbank composition and density; and postemergence (POST), based upon observed weed seedling composition and density. Weed densities, weed control, herbicide use, environmental impact of herbicide use, weed management costs, crop yields, and economic returns that resulted from PRE+ and POST recommendations were compared to those associated with herbicide management systems (HERB) that were standard for the region. After 4 yr of applying WEEDSIM recommendations to the same plots, there were no increases in annual weed densities (seedbanks, seedlings, established plants, or seed production) or decreases in weed control or crop (soybean, rotation corn, and continuous corn) yields, compared to HERB. WEEDSIM recommendations resulted in average annual herbicide applications of 1.1 kg ai ha−1 for PRE+ and 1.0 kg ai ha−1 for POST, compared to 3.5 kg ai ha−1 for HERB. Environmental impact indices associated with PRE+, POST, and HERB were 0.75, 0.71, and 0.54, with the lowest value indicating greater environmental risk than the two higher values. Similarly, average weed management costs were $24, $33, and $77 ha−1 for PRE+, POST, and HERB, respectively. Based on crop prices of $94 Mg−1 for corn and $220 Mg-1 for soybean, the average gross margins over weed control costs were higher for PRE+ ($509 ha−1) and POST ($522 ha−1) than for HERB ($455 ha−1). In general, WEEDSIM appeared to make management recommendations that adequately controlled weeds, maintained crop yields, reduced herbicide use, decreased environmental risk, lowered weed management costs, and increased gross margins over weed control costs compared to the use of herbicides standard for the region.

Ridge-till is an integrated weed management system that involves the physical movement of soil containing weed seeds away from the row with ridge-clearing equipment on the planter. Corn, grain sorghum, and soybean are the major crops planted using the ridge-till system. Weeds can be controlled with cultivation, competitive row crops, and herbicides. Weeds have adapted to the system but have been controlled through alternative management. Through modernization of equipment and herbicides, ridge-till has become an economic crop production practice. Integrating cultivation and herbicides controls a broader spectrum of weeds than cultivation or herbicides alone.

Metolachlor and metribuzin loss in runoff was determined in three soybean tillage systems with and without a 4 by 2 m tall fescue vegetative filter strip. Soil erosion plots were 4 by 22 m with 3% slope. Regression analysis was used to describe herbicide concentration in runoff, and to determine if vegetative filter strips reduced herbicide concentration. Analysis of covariance indicated no difference in concentration of metolachlor or metribuzin in runoff from the three tillage systems within any vegetative filter strip treatment. Metolachlor loss in 1991 was highest from the no-till monocrop without a vegetative filter strip, and it was 65g ha−1 or approximately 2% of the amount applied. In 1992 and 1993, the no-till doublecrop had a total loss of 120 and 147 g ha−1, respectively, approximately 4% of the amount applied. Similar results were noted with metribuzin, but total loss was as high as 46 g ha−1 or 11 % of the amount applied in 1993 from a no-till doublecrop system without a vegetative filter strip. When a vegetative filter strip was present, losses of metribuzin and metolachlor were reduced over 85% in 1993, and totaled 1.2 and 0.5%, respectively, of the amount applied. The vegetative filter strip reduced herbicide and suspended solids from runoff produced by a conventional-till production system to levels equal to or lower than a no-till doublecrop system.

Cooperative research was initiated by a multidisciplinary team of weed scientists and agricultural economists in 1975 that laid the foundation for integrated weed management research in Colorado. Colorado's integrated weed management research has four phases: weed seed bank decline, systems approach to weed management, bioeconomic modeling, and multiple weed management tactics. Each phase considered weed seed bank, weed control efficacy, weed control costs, crop yield, and gross margin. All four phases emphasize the need for a weed management system that minimizes seed production in situations where a high soil weed seed bank exists. However, once the weed seed bank is reduced, a weed management program with less than 100% weed control can be employed without increasing the seed bank. Intensive weed management systems are seldom justified when economics, weed control, and weed seed bank are considered. Integrated weed management approaches require integrating crop and weed biology with management tactics. Integrated weed management requires advanced managerial skills and often more time than traditional approaches.

Hydrolysis and adsorption of the sulfonylurea herbicides rimsulfuron and primisulfuron were investigated under laboratory conditions. Degradation in aqueous solutions was determined between pH 3 and 8 and between 5 and 35 C. Rimsulfuron degraded faster than primisulfuron. Half-lives at different temperatures at pH 4 ranged from 0.16 to 5.8 d for rimsulfuron and from 0.47 to 16.1 d for primisulfuron. Primisulfuron hydrolysis at 30 C decreased with increasing pH, but rimsulfuron decreased up to pH 7, then increased, suggesting rapid degradation in alkaline conditions. Adsorption, measured in six Colorado soils, was complete within 2 h in all soils. Adsorption isotherms were determined by batch equilibration of 75 to 600 μg L−1. Rimsulfuron was adsorbed in amounts 3.7 to 7 times higher than primisulfuron, with adsorption distribution coefficients (Kd) ranging from 0.1 to to 1.18 for primisulfuron and from 0.71 to 5.1 for rimsulfuron. Adsorption of both herbicides was slightly correlated with soil clay content, and primisulfuron adsorption was also correlated with organic matter content.

A 9-yr large-scale integrated pest management (IPM) study was initiated in 1985 to develop and refine profitable conservation cropping systems in the Palouse wheat-growing region of the Pacific Northwest. Weed scientists from the USDA-ARS and the land-grant universities of ID and WA led a team of researchers and extension personnel from eight disciplines to investigate the interactions of crop systems, tillage systems, and weed management levels (WML) on crop production. Ineffective weed control has been a major deterrent to the adoption of conservation tillage by wheat growers. With this in mind, the primary focus of the scientists on the IPM project was integrated weed management (IWM) in conservation crop production systems for highly erodible land. For the first time in the Pacific Northwest, systems research developed a conservation production system using a 3-yr crop rotation that controlled weeds effectively, reduced erosion, was less risky than traditional farming systems, and was profitable. Broadleaf weeds were more prevalent in the 3-yr rotation of winter wheat-spring barley-spring pea compared to continuous wheat in both conservation and conventional tillage systems. In conservation tillage, troublesome grass weeds included wild oat and downy brome. Wild oat was controlled effectively at the moderate and maximum weed management levels under conservation tillage in the 3-yr rotation. Two years out of winter wheat (such as in the 3-yr rotation) reduced downy brome populations. In contrast, growing a spring crop 1 yr, followed by 2 yr of winter wheat was not effective for controlling downy brome. Effective weed control was instrumental in developing successful conservation IPM cropping systems, and education and technology transfer were important in helping action agencies assist growers in adopting these systems.

Integrated weed management (IWM) research has focused on how crop yields and weed interference are affected by changes in management, e.g., tillage, herbicide application timing and rates, cover crops, and planting patterns. Acceptance of IWM will depend on recommendation of specific strategies that manage weeds and maintain crop productivity; such research will and should continue. However, IWM needs to move from a descriptive to a predictive phase if long-term strategies are to be adopted. Linking management changes with crop-weed modeling that includes such components as weed population dynamics and the ecophysiological basis of competition will help predict future weed problems and solutions and the economic risks and benefits of intervention. Predictive approaches would help incorporate IWM into models of the processes that occur in agricultural systems at wider spatial and temporal scales, i.e., in agroecosystems comprised of the interactions among organisms (including humans) and the environment. It is at these larger scales that decisions about management are initiated and where questions about the long-term consequences and constraints of IWM and agriculture are often asked. These questions can be addressed by agroecosystem health, an approach that integrates biophysical, social, and economic concerns and recognizes that agriculture is part of a world with many complex subsystems and interactions. Indicators are used to examine the status of an agroecosystem, e.g., whether or not it contains all that is necessary to continue functioning. Indicators include soil quality, crop productivity, and water quality; all of these are related to the rationale of IWM, hence IWM can be linked to agroecosystem health. Ancillary effects of using IWM relate to other indicators such as diversity and energy efficiency. Linking IWM to agroecosystem health has at least two benefits: (1) predictive models within IWM can be incorporated into larger agroecosystem models to explore hitherto unforseen problems or benefits of IWM, and (2) the relevance and benefits of IWM should become clearer to the public and government agencies who otherwise might not examine how IWM promotes many of the larger social, economic and environmental goals being promulgated.

Bentazon degradation in soil typically proceeds with development of bound residue. Low sorption of bentazon suggests that this residue consists of degradation products; however, there is little data on the sorption behavior of these products. This study was undertaken to determine the sorption of bentazon and the degradation products 2-amino-N-isopropyl benzamide, 2-aminobenzoic acid, and N-methyl bentazon in Dundee silt loam and Sharkey clay, two common agricultural soils of the Mississippi Delta. Greater sorption of bentazon and degradation products in the Sharkey soil was related to finer texture and higher organic C content. Isotherms were nonlinear, with sorption increasing in the order bentazon ≪ 2-amino-N-isopropyl benzamide < N- methyl bentazon. In general, methanol extraction indicated reversible sorption of these compounds. Therefore, it is unlikely that sorption of either 2-amino-N-isopropyl benzamide or N-methyl bentazon contributes to bound residue. In contrast, essentially all of the 14C sorbed from radiolabeled 2-aminobenzoic acid solution remained bound after methanol extraction. However, due to degradation of 2-aminobenzoic acid, it was not possible to conclude the extent to which this compound contributed to bound 14C. Sorption of 14C from 2-aminobenzoic acid exceeded that of N-methyl bentazon, and at low initial concentrations (≤ 20 μM) was nearly 1000-fold greater than bentazon sorption.