We report the direct detection of cyclic diameter variations in the Mira variable χ Cygni. Interferometric observations made between 1997 July and 1998 September, using the Cambridge Optical Aperture Synthesis Telescope (COAST) indicate periodic changes in the apparent angular diameter with amplitude 45 per-cent of the smallest value.

The measurements were made in a 50 nm bandpass centred on 905 nm, which is only moderately contaminated by molecular absorption features. To assess the effects of atmospheric stratification on the apparent diameter measured in this band, we have also measured near-infrared diameters for a sample of five Miras, in both the J-band (1.3 μm) and Wing's (1971) 1.04 μm band, which is expected to isolate essentially pure continuum emission. We present J-band visibility curves which indicate that the intensity profiles of the stars in the sample differ greatly from each other.

The MACHO data base has been used to examine light curves of all red giant stars brighter than Mbol ∼ −2 in a 0.5° × 0.5° area of the LMC bar. Periods, often multiple, have been searched for in all stars found to be variable. Five distinct period-luminosity sequences have been found on the low mass (M ≲ 2.25M⊙) giant branch. Comparison of observed periods, luminosities and period ratios with theoretical models identifies Miras unambiguously as radial fundamental mode pulsators, while semi-regular variables can be pulsating in the 1st, 2nd or 3rd overtone, or even the fundamental. All these variables lie on just 3 of the 5 distinct sequences, and they all appear to be on the AGB.

The fourth sequence contains red giants on the first giant branch (FGB) or at the red end of the core-helium burning loops of intermediate mass stars (M ≳ 2.25M⊙). The light curves of these stars strongly suggest that they are contact binaries, and they make up ∼0.5% of stars within 1 mag. of the FGB tip. Stars on the fifth sequence show semi-regular, eclipse-like light curves. The light curves and periods of these stars suggest that they are in semi-detached binaries, transfering mass to an invisible companion via a stellar wind or Roche lobe overflow. They make up ∼25% of AGB stars. If the existence of these red giant contact and semi-detached binaries is confirmed, then extant theories of binary star evolution will require substantial modification.

Time-dependent dynamics is an important ingredient for understanding the atmospheres of pulsating AGB stars. The shock waves created by stellar pulsation modify the atmospheric structure and, consequently, influence the mass loss and the observable properties. So far, hydrostatic model atmospheres have been used in most cases to analyse photospheric spectra, neglecting the effects of dynamics. The recent progress in observational techniques, however, has demonstrated the importance of consistent time-dependent models. The main topics of this contribution are to discuss fundamental physical processes and technical problems in constructing dynamical model atmospheres, to review the present status of modelling and to indicate possible future developments.

We present ISO-SWS observations of cool oxygen-rich AGB variables and compare them to synthetic molecular and dust spectra based on hydrostatic and dynamic model atmospheres.

We carried out observations of bright optical carbon stars with the ISO SWS, and detected the absorption features of CO, CS, CH, SiS and HCN in N-type and SC-type stars. The CH fundamental bands in 3-4 μm in N-type stars are stronger than those in SC-type stars. On the other hand, the first overtone bands of SiS at 6.6 μm were detected in WZ Cas (SC-type), while none of them were detected in N-type stars. These results can be explained well by the lower C/O ratio in SC-type stars than in N-type stars. The absorption features of HCN (v1, v2 + v3 and v1 − v2) are stronger in SC-type stars than in N-type stars. This fact can be explained by the cooler atmospheres of our SC-type stars due to the lower C/O ratio as well as due to the lower effective temperature, compared with the N-type stars in our sample. The CS bands and the band heads of the CO fundamental bands are weaker in the observed spectra than in those predicted by our model atmospheres. This result cannot be explained by the present model atmosphere and one possible explanation is the contribution by the emission of CO and CS in the outer atmosphere.

We present ISO-SWS spectra for several representative AGB carbon stars obtained at several phases of the pulsational cycle. For stars with significant mass loss we correct the spectra for the dust emission by using DUSTY models. We then compare these corrected data to synthetic spectra based on hydrostatic and dynamical model atmospheres. We also discuss the influence of the fundamental model parameters on the resulting synthetic spectra.

We review dynamical models of circumstellar dust shells around long-period variables which include time-dependent hydrodynamics and a detailed treatment of dust formation, growth and evaporation. Important effects caused by the complex interaction between the dynamics of the pulsating atmosphere and the dust complex which only can be revealed in the dynamical approach are summarized. Special emphasis is given to the treatment of the dust and gas opacity.

We have produced a movie of the time evolution of the v=1, J=1−0 43 GHz SiO masers in the inner circumstellar envelope of the isolated Mira variable TX Cam. Our observations, taken every two weeks with the VLBA, currently cover about 60% of the stellar cycle from ϕ ∼ 0.6 → ϕ ∼ 1.2. They show that, in contrast to previous observations and theoretical models, the gas in which the masers are embedded is undergoing expansion during this period with a typical velocity of 3.65 ± 0.15 km/s. Some isolated features are seen to start falling back towards the star at around ϕ ∼ 1.0. We suggest that the 5 → 10 G magnetic fields we have previously detected at the position of the SiO masers may explain the departure from the expected behaviour.

Since 1994, observations of a sample of about 20 Mira Ceti-type and semiregular variables have been carried out in three spectral ranges: radio (H2O maser line λ = 1.35 cm), optical (spectroscopy and UBV photometry) and infrared (JHKLM photometry). Time series of the Hα emission intensity and H2O line flux, covering several periods of the stars, have been obtained. Correlation of the intensity variations of the H2O maser with optical variability in the maser stars RR Aql, U Ori, VX Sgr and others was confirmed. One of the most interesting results is the flare of the H2O maser emission in R Leo, which happened in autumn 1997, 14 months after a flare of the Hα emission.

We discuss ISO spectroscopy of oxygen-rich dust shells surrounding evolved stars. The dust that condenses in the outflows of stars on the Asymptotic Giant Branch consists mainly of amorphous silicates and simple oxides. For high mass loss rates, crystalline silicates begin to appear at modest abundance. These crystalline silicates are cold and Fe-poor. ISO spectroscopy for the first time allows quantitative mineralogy of oxygen-rich circumstellar dust. Crystalline silicates are found at high abundance in sources with peculiar (disk) geometry, such as long-lived circum-binary disks. Some C-rich post-AGB stars, notably the Red Rectangle and several nebulae surrounding [WC] central stars of Planetary Nebulae, also show crystalline silicates. We speculate on the origin and evolution of the crystalline dust component in evolved stars.

This paper summarizes laboratory investigations of Stardust analogue materials with special emphasis on the spectroscopic behaviour of silicates and carbonaceous materials. The review will also deal with the identification of the observed features in the dust spectra of AGB stars.

We present the first steps of our work aimed at a consistent time-dependent modeling of oxygen–rich circumstellar dust shells (CDS) around pulsating AGB stars. The nature of the most likely nucleation seeds is investigated for this situation and we find that TiO2 is a most promising candidate to serve as the primary condensate, forming already at temperatures well above 1 000 K. These nuclei evolve to macroscopic dust grains by heterogeneous growth processes involving several chemical species. We investigate the varying chemical composition of the resulting dust grains as they evolve as a function of time in a fluid element moving through the CDS of an oxygen–rich long-period variable star (LPV).

Crystallization of silicate has been investigated within the framework of dust formation in steady state gas outflows around oxygen–rich AGB stars, where silicates are locked not only into homogeneous silicate grains but also into the mantles of heterogeneous grains. Based on the thermal history of dust grains after their formation, the crystallization calculation results in no crystalline silicate for the mass loss rate Ṁ ≤ 2 × 10−5M⊙ yr−1. Only silicate in the mantles of heterogeneous grains can be crystallized for Ṁ ≥ 3 × 10−5M⊙ yr−1, while homogeneous silicate grains remain amorphous. The mass fraction of crystalline silicate increases with increasing Ṁ. The radiation transfer calculations confirm the appearance of an emission feature around 33.5 μm, taking olivine as a representative of crystalline silicates. On the other hand, the 10μm feature appears in absorption, being dominated by homogeneous silicate grains. These trends are consistent with the observations. Thus the crystalline silicate is a diagnostics of high mass loss rate at the late stage of AGB stellar evolution, reflecting the formation process of dust grains.

In conjunction with an extensive ground-based monitoring program of 32 oxygen-rich Mira variables, a subset of this sample has been monitored with phase using ISO's Short Wavelength Spectrometer (ISOSWS) and ground-based mid-infrared spectrometers. Some of the six sources will be presented here in 2.5–45 μm ISOSWS spectra and 7.5–13.5 μm ground-based spectra using CGS3. Discussion of the spectral features of SiO, CO, H2O, and silicates will be presented. These data are considered in the context of recent demonstrations of variations in the spectral features with phase of the Miras.

We shall review the various types of chemistry involved in the formation of carbonaceous material present in carbon-rich AGB stars, mainly amorphous carbon, silicon carbide and other metal carbides discovered in pre-solar Stardust extracted from meteorites. The chemistry is discussed in the context of laboratory experiments and their application to circumstellar AGB winds. Emphasis is put on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), titanium carbide clusters and silicon carbide grains. Attempt to explain the condensation sequences derived from the study of pre-solar grains of meteoretical origin is made on the basis of physio-chemical models which describe the periodically shocked gas close to the photosphere of AGB stars.

The consistent treatment of the physical problem describing a dust forming circumstellar shell yields, besides the time variation of the hydrodynamic and thermodynamic shell structure, also the temporal evolution of the grain–size distribution function. We discuss the influence of the dynamical behavior of corresponding dust shell models on the resulting infrared light curves, brightness distributions, and CO infrared line profiles. Some remarks on the grain–size distribution are also given.

We have studied the absorption bands around 14 μm in the spectra of 11 carbon stars with mass-loss rates ranging from 10−8 to 10−4 M⊙ yr−1, based on data obtained with the Short Wavelength Spectrometer (SWS) on board the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO). All stars clearly show a C2H2 absorption band peaking at 13.7 μm, while the contribution from HCN molecules is small in this wavelength region. A simple plane-parallel LTE model with two layers at different temperatures is used to derive the C2H2 abundances in the outer photosphere and in the circumstellar envelope. We find that (1) the column density of the hot-layer, placed at about 3R* with a temperature of 1400 K is roughly the same for all stars regardless of the mass-loss rate, and (2) the contribution of cool molecules in the circumstellar envelope increases with the dust mass-loss rate, (3) the abundance of C2H2 in the two layers is about the same, i.e. no obvious depletion of C2H2 molecules seems to occur in the circumstellar envelope.

We present high-resolution J–, H–, and K–band observations of the carbon star IRC+10 216. The images were reconstructed from 6 m telescope speckle interferograms using the speckle masking bispectrum method. The H image has the unprecedented resolution of 70 mas. The H and K images consist of at least five dominant components within a 0.21 arcsec radius and a fainter asymmetric nebula. The J-, H-, and K—band images seem to have an X-shaped bipolar structure. A comparison of our images from 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 shows that the separation of the two brightest components A and B increased from ∼ 193 mas in 1995 to ∼ 246 mas in 1998.

The cometary shapes of component A in the H and J images and the 0.79 μm and 1.06 μm HST images suggest that the core of A is not the central star, but the southern (nearer) lobe of the bipolar structure. The position of the central star is probably at or near the position of component B, where the H—K color has its largest value of H—K = 4.2.

If the star is located at or near B, then the components A, C, and D are located close to the inner boundary of the dust shell at separations of ∼200 mas ∼30 AU (projected distance) ∼6 stellar radii for a distance of ∼ 150 pc, in agreement with our 2-dimensional radiative transfer modelling.

In addition to IRC+ 10 216 we studied the stellar disks and the dust shells of several related objects. Angular resolutions of 24 mas at 700 nm or 57 mas 1.6 μm were achieved.

Thermochemical equilibrium calculations are successful in predicting the mineralogy as well as the major and trace element chemistry of circumstellar grains found in meteorites. The calculations also explain observations of dust close to AGB stars (within 1–3 stellar radii). The trace element chemistry in circumstellar graphite, SiC, and other refractory carbide grains agrees with equilibrium condensation calculations for circumstellar shells of carbon stars. Observed trace element abundance patterns in N stars are complementary to those found in SiC grains indicating fractional condensation in circumstellar shells. Condensation temperatures depend upon total pressure, C/O ratio, nitrogen abundances, and overall metallicity. Therefore for condensation temperatures to be meaningful, the total pressure and elemental abundances (i.e., C/O ratio, metallicity) must be specified.

Combined ISO SWS and LWS spectroscopy is presented of the late WC-type planetary nebula nucleus CPD-56†8032 and its carbon-rich nebula. The extremely broad coverage (2.4–197 μm) enables us to recognize the clear and simultaneous presence of emission features from both oxygen- and carbon-rich circumstellar materials. Removing a smooth continuum highlights bright emission bands characteristic of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (hereafter PAHs) in the 3–15 μm region, bands from crystalline silicates longwards of 18 μm, and the 43- and 62-μm bands of crystalline water ice. We discuss the probable evolutionary state and history of this unusual object in terms of (a) a recent transition from an O-rich to a C-rich outflow following a helium shell flash; or (b) a carbon-rich nebular outflow encountering an O-rich comet cloud orbiting in a Kuiper-belt-like distribution.