The past decade has seen the emergence of significant fossil evidence of a history of pterodophytearthropod interaction extending back to the Devonian period. Such fossils include plant tissue showing lesions, bites and borings with associated features implicating arthropods as causal agents. Gut contents of Carboniferous arthropods, which include lycopod xylem elements and spores, are a tangible demonstration of phytophagy. Pteridophyte spores in fossil droppings (coprolites) indicate the prevalence of arthropod spore-eating in the Palaeozoic. This may have had compensations for the source plant and evidently represented the start of the co–evolution which culminated in the elaborate adaptations shown by flowering plants and their insect pollination vectors.

The presence upon the ulna of many birds of a row of smaller or greater tuberosities, their variety in size and conformation, and the presence of other appearances on the surface of the ulna suggested that an investigation of these variations and of the development of the structures might yield points of interest.

Owen (1848) was apparently the first (we have been unable to consult Brandt's paper, quoted by Gadow) to draw attention to these ulnar markings, related to the quills of the secondary remiges. In that year he published a schematic outline drawing of the avian forelimb. Neither in this nor in a subsequent publication (1849), however, did he describe the linear series of markings on the ulna shown in the drawing; but in 1866 he stated that “on the ulnar and anconal sides of the shaft are the rows of quill-knobs (in Raptores) for the secondaries; the anconal row is most marked in longipennate Natatores, and is the only row in many birds.” He mentioned also that this character is wanting in the flightless and some other birds. Pl. I, fig. 1, will be seen to correspond closely with his description.

The Lower Carboniferous genus Prosagenodus Romer and Smith 1934 is re-examined. The type species Prosagenodus interruptus is re-assigned to the genus Ctenodus and a new genus Tranodis named for the American species, of which new material is described. The new species Ctenodus romeri is described, the new genus Straitonia is described, and the bearings of all these discoveries upon consideration of the phylogenies of Ctenodus and Sagenodus is discussed.

The end of the nineteenth century saw the publication of the first works on plankton of the Norwegian Sea.

In 1886 G. O. Sars wrote about abundant zooplankton in the banks off the Norwegian coast and the rich fauna of the cold waters. In their monographs, Gran (1902) and Damas (1905) also dwelt on plankton of the Norwegian Sea. Gran singled out the groups of plankton characteristic of the Atlantic, mixed and Arctic waters. He believed that the terms of development of plankton depended on the thermal state of the Atlantic Current.

The present contribution shows the extent and the limitations of our knowledge of the structure, functions and biota of the epidermis of just one family of teleost fish, the Salmonidae. Even within this group it is clear that the epidermis can respond, with remarkable rapidity in some cases, to changes in the environment and to internal stimuli, presumably mediated via the fish's endocrine system. Against this background of constantly changing structure it is believed that the emphasis of the multiple functions of the epidermis must also be changing. Thus, future studies on the skin offish must take into account the possibility of such variations and relate the biology of the skin and its inhabitants to broader aspects of the biology of the fish.

Seasonal changes in the distribution of Lymnœa peregra (Müller) on a gently sloping beach of Loch Lomond have been studied in detail, with particular reference to the effects of the changes in water level which occur. At lower water temperatures the distribution can be correlated with the availability of food. At higher water temperatures the respiratory needs of adult snails cause them to remain close to the water's edge, even in the absence of food. This is not always true of young snails. Measurement of the fæces produced by such adult snails gives further evidence that a degree of starvation can occur for short periods in the summer months.

Comparative data on the characteristics of the physical environment and the general distribution of gastropods in Loch Lomond are given, and the study discussed in relation to previous work on the littoral ecology of large lakes.

A review of current knowledge of early fern evolution is presented including new data on age, morphology and anatomy with two diagrams summarising the early diversification of cauline and foliar anatomy and of the reproductive structures. The relationships and even the attribution of some Devonian taxa to the ferns is questioned whilst most of the Carboniferous coenopterids are considered indisputable ferns, some of them being related to modern filicaleans. The discovery, in the Lower Carboniferous of Scotland, of diverse annulate filicalean sporangia suggests an earlier (Tournaisian) radiation of true ferns than was previously assumed.

The Reptilia and Amphibia are two distinct groups of vertebrates. However, they show a number of similarities, such as ectothermy and ecdysis, and are therefore compared and contrasted in this paper.

The physical features of the skin of reptiles and amphibians vary considerably; in the case of the amphibians the skin is usually relatively thin and may play a part in respiration while that of the reptile is often thick and impervious due to heavy keratinisation. Little is known of the ‘climate’ of the integument and there are relatively few data on its chemistry. Various pathogens may gain entry to the skin but usually this necessitates breaching the epithelium or taking advantage of existing damage.

With the gradation of intensities of environmental factors from the strand-line to stable inland areas, coastal dunes show many ecological phenomena especially clearly. These are reviewed broadly, with some emphasis on topics on which important advances are being made. The nutrient status of dune soil and changes with time are shown with reference to several dune systems. Changes in major nutrients are given for Braunton Burrows, north Devon, where the influence of nitrogen fixation by Lotus corniculatus is illustrated. The effects of sand burial on plants are considered, and details given of the root systems of vigorous and relict marram; factors which may affect its decline in vigour are reviewed. Also discussed is the likely significance of nematodes in the decline of Hippophaë rhamnoides. Reasons for the richness of the dune flora are considered and also some autecological studies. At the physiological level, reference is made to the water relations of plants and at the biochemical level to the occurrence and possible ecological importance of stress metabolites. Life strategies, phenology, survivorship, competition and the population ecology of dune plants are reviewed and also the interaction of ragwort (Senecio jacobaea) and cinnabar moth (Tyria jacobaeae). The population genetics of dune plants is illustrated by reference to Festuca rubra and Ammophila arenaria and of animals to Cepaea nemoralis.

The abundance and ecological relationships of the invertebrate fauna are exemplified by surveys at Spurn Point, extensive investigations on spiders and the influence of marram on arthropod communities. The ecology of the natterjack load is considered in relation to conservation and the effects of large animal grazers in relation to the diversity of vegetation.

The intertidal habitats of the Forth estuary are dominated by fine-grained muds, which experience a salinity range of 0–32%, j over the length of the estuary from Stirling to Queensferry. The current total area of the intertidal zone is 23.3 km2, the majority of which is found in the three central bays of Skinflats, Kinneil and Torry Bay. Over the centuries, agricultural and industrial reclamation has reduced by almost 50% the size of the Forth estuary intertidal habitat. The upper estuary has narrow intertidal shores, inhabited almost exclusively by oligochaete worms, which are very abundant due to organic enrichment of the area. The middle estuary is responsible for the greatest biomass and production of the intertidal benthic macrofauna. The lower estuary has a greater diversity of species than the upper and middle estuary, but has a lower biomass and abundance of macrofauna. It is shown that the production/biomass (P/B) ratio of several species in the Forth estuary is lower than that of the same species in other estuaries. This depression cannot be explained by natural environmental variables, and is suggested as being due to the levels of pollutants throughout the area. Despite this depressed productivity, and the threats from further reclamation, the Forth estuary retains abundant populations of intertidal animals, which are an important food source for birds and fish.

Adult powan, Coregonus clupeoides Lacépède, in Loch Lomond show regular diurnal and seasonal migrations, connected normally with either feeding or reproduction. As the breeding season approaches, most of the adult population gather in deep water (usually in the vicinity of the areas of wave-washed gravel and small stones in shallow water, which form the main spawning grounds). The male fish start to move on to these grounds nightly towards the end of December each year; at the end of this month, but mainly during January, the females ripen and join them for spawning. This is completed by the beginning of February and the population then gradually disperses over the rest of the loch. The present fecundity estimates, carried out for female powan during two seasons, are in general agreement with those found for Coregonus elsewhere in the Palearctic region. They give an average of 5750 eggs per adult fish, the mean fork length of which was just over 27 cm. Though there is a positive correlation between the numbers of eggs produced and the size of the females, it is not a strong one. After being laid, the eggs immediately undergo a heavy mortality and are eaten in considerable numbers by trout, Salmo trutta L., powan, roach, Rutilus rutilus (L.) Phryganea larvae, and various other animals. The adult powan too are preyed upon extensively at this time in certain parts of Loch Lomond by pike, Esox luciusL. The reproductive ecology of the powan shows several basic similarities to that of other Salmonidae in the British Isles, the main features fitting well with what has been postulated about the origin and distribution of the family in this country.

The racial affinities of the widely distributed (palearctic) ringed snake, Natrix natrix were assessed using a large number of phenotypic characters from a wide range of features. These characters show a considerable amount of complex geographic variation which is further complicated by geographic variation in the extent of their sexual, ontogenetic and local variation. Nevertheless, extensive analysis of the data using univariate statistics, numerical taxonomy and a wide range of multivariate statistics allowed the primary patterns of ‘racial’ differentiation to be elucidated.

The dominant feature of the racial affinities is the division of the majority of the complex into distinct eastern and western forms which meet along a ‘hybrid zone’. The nature of this zone is analysed in detail and discussed in relation to aspects of evolutionary theory such as gene flow. The island populations of Corsica and Sardinia are also extremely divergent. The evolution and taxonomy of the four primary subdivisions of the complex (east, west, Corsica, Sardinia) are discussed in relation to Pleistocene history, evolutionary theory, species concepts (phenetic and biological) and subspecies concepts, etc. These four subdivisions border on the species rank and may be regarded by some as semispecies. They are formally recognised as subspecies. Attention is drawn to the difficulties of intraspecific taxonomy and the arbitrary nature of the four taxa given formal recognition.

The base-line study consisted of three visits to Sullom Voe before the oil terminal became operational. General stress indices were used to measure the health and condition of four native and two transplanted populations of mussels (Mytilus edulis). A mobile laboratory was used to measure the physiological responses under ambient field conditions. These were then integrated into the stress indices, scope for growth and oxygen :nitrogen ratio. The general biochemical and cytological stress indices, namely taurine: glycine ratio, gametogenic development and latency of lysosomal β-hexosaminidase were also measured for each population. All these general stress indices indicated that the mussel populations were in a relatively healthy physiological condition. However, mussels from the Houb of Scatsta showed a transient stress response, probably caused by freshwater run-off from the surrounding peat beds.

In addition to the general stress indices, specific cellular responses known to be induced by petroleum hydrocarbons were monitored. The activity of enzymes forming components of the mixed-function oxidase system (NADPH neotetrazolium reductase, G6PDH and NADP-ICDH, and aldrin epoxidation) were measured.

The rationale for measuring these general and specific stress indices as part of a Sullom Voe environmental monitoring programme is discussed in the light of experiments with petroleum hydrocarbons in the laboratory and with reference to the future operation of the oil terminal.

In the last two decades both experimental and theoretical research in aeolian sediment transport has greatly enhanced our quantitative understanding of the saltation process. I emphasise the qualitative understanding of saltation that has emerged in part through development of a numerical model consisting of four subprocesses: (1) aerodynamic entrainment, (2) grain trajectories, (3) grain-bed impacts, and (4) momentum extraction from the wind. Each sub-model encapsulates the physics of the process, and is constrained, where necessary, by experimental data. When combined, the full model allows simulation of aeolian saltation from inception by aerodynamic entrainment to steady state. The results are encouraging, showing both qualitative and quantitative correspondence with wind tunnel measurements.

In an attempt to further the qualitative understanding of the problem, an analogy is proposed between the saltation population and a biological population, wherein both individual and collective properties are considered. Although at present these models lack the detail to treat the true complexity of the natural world – in particular the wetness of beach sands and the potential role of beach vegetation – they serve both to develop our intuition about the natural setting, and to guide future experimental efforts.

Eleocharis sphacelata (Cyperaceae) is a common emergent hydrophyte in wetlands throughout Australasia, and is notable as a particularly large member of its genus, able to grow in water up to 2 m deep (Sainty & Jacobs 1981). It is a perennial species, supporting live emergent shoots throughout the year, and grows only on flooded sediments. In Australia, the water temperature in E. sphacelata wetlands remains mild in winter (c. 6°C) but is high (25–30°C) during summer (Brix et al. 1992; Sorrell & Boon 1992). In this paper we present an analysis of the mechanisms of internal ventilation in this species and their ability to aerate the submerged tissue.

Important qualitative changes that have occurred in the zooplankton of Loch Leven within the present century are described, together with the methods and results of routine quantitative sampling during 1969 and 1972. In 1969, the crustacean zooplankton was a virtual monoculture of the carnivorous cyclopoid copepod Cyclops strenuus abyssorum and showed a marked absence of filter-feeders. This contrasts drastically with the situation in 1972 when the filter-feeding cladoceran Daphnia hyalina var. lacustris co-dominated with Cyclops. The standing crop data for the 2 years are compared and the important rotifers mentioned.

Contemporary plant species show a wide range of responses to oxidative attack. Much of this variation may reflect the different environmental selective pressures operating at different geological periods over the course of angiosperm evolution. Evidence is provided to show that the wide range of contemporary responses to oxidative stress may directly reflect the persistence of genes controlling free radical processes under environments of the past.

A comparison of macrofouling assemblages on offshore structures in the North Sea has revealed some similarity in their general characteristics, with a predominance in climax communities of relatively few species, such as the plumose anemone Metridium senile (L.) and the soft coral Alcyonium digitatum L., covering large proportions of the substratum. Specific geographical differences in community composition, diversity and successional development have been identified, however, and these are discussed in relation to environmental conditions and larval dispersal. In practical terms, the conservation of offshore fouling communities depends upon the fates of structures supporting these assemblages. Since the U.K.'s approach to platform decommissioning could ultimately involve the in situ toppling of structures in sea depths greater than 100 m, there would appear to be little threat to the long-term existence of offshore habitats for deep-water fouling assemblages. Moreover, an abundance of largely uninvestigated habitats for fouling organisms exists on submerged wrecks and other man-made structures. Thus, there appears to be no basis for a conservation requirement in relation to the fouling communities on fixed structures in the North Sea.