During recent years there has been a steady increase in the total world fish catch (including shellfish) to a plateau, reached in the early 1970's, of around 70 million tonnes. Although much of the increase in the past decade has been due to the Anchoveta fishery, if that component is excluded the underlying trend is still upward (Gulland, 1976). This increasing pressure on the established fishery resources has meant that in recent years there has been a tendency for those nations with a distant water fishing capability to look further afield. Although much of this exploratory fishing has been in areas reasonably close to good harbour facilities, the recent trend by coastal states of establishing 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zones has meant that the Southern Ocean, an area of limited international control, has receiveda great deal of attention.

This article gives an overview of tourism on Svalbard. Tourism to this archipelago, which is under the jurisdiction of Norway, started more than 100 years ago. As a modern industry, however, the end of 1980s can be seen as the starting period. Since 1990, tourism development has been given priority by the Norwegian government, and there has been a significant increase both in commercial activities and in the number of tourists. Early and recent tourism developments are presented. In 1996 tourism accounted for almost 200 jobs, 48,000 commercial overnights, around 12,000 airborne tourists, and between 15,000 and 20,000 cruise-ship passengers. The article then describes the most frequent types of tourists, and discusses tourism's impact on the environment. So far, tourism has not produced many documented problems on biota and heritage. Tourism regulation on Svalbard is also described, showing a multitude of means and arrangements, including a proactive self-regulation by the tourism industry. The future challenges, particularly the questions connected to the limits of volume, are discussed. There is a broad understanding of the need of an active policy from the authorities to cope with these questions. The article concludes by referring to the increased emphasis on environmental questions in the Norwegian politics concerning Svalbard, which probably also indicates a willingness to intervene with tourism development.

The open-system pingos of Spitsbergen are formed outside terminal moraines, fault zones, and delta areas. Pingos in this study area were located near the shore in active geologic uplift areas. Three open-system pingos in the Adventdalen delta area of Spitsbergen were examined. Pingos closer to shore are younger in age and those farther away are older. Growth of these pingos occurs rapidly after initial submarine uplift and a minimum thickness of permafrost is established. Hut pingo, which is farthest from the sea, was formed after 6980±70 a BP (NUTA-3856). Driftwood associated with Longyear pingo, in the middle part of the delta, was dated at 2800±90 a BP. The radiocarbon age of peat near the shore pingo, Lagoon pingo, was 140±20 a BP. The growth of the pingos is related to transgression and development of permafrost.

Buried pits (sumps), used for the disposal of drilling muds in the Mackenzie Delta area of Arctic Canada, provide an opportunity for assessing the effectiveness of ice-bonded permafrost sediments as a containment for industrial wastes. Potassium chloride (KCI) added to drilling muds as a freezing-point depressant provides a suitable tracer, because it is easily identified and natural concentrations in sediment pore water are typically low (less than 0.02 g l−1; potassium). Muds with KCI concentrations of up to 10% by weight (100 g l−1) have been used. In the vicinity of sumps, potassium is found at elevated concentrations of up to several g l−1 in the seasonal thaw layer (active layer) at distances well beyond what would be expected from diffusive transport alone. Within the level alluvial silts of the modern Mackenzie Delta, KCI has moved up to 50 m laterally from sump edges. On surrounding tundra uplands, KCI has migrated several hundred metres downslope within the active layer.

Although ice-rich permafrost sediments appear to form an effective barrier against downward movement of solutes, thawing ice lenses and veins within the active layer greatly increase the lateral hydraulic conductivity in this zone during the thaw season. Compared with unfrozen silty sediments, the large pores left by thawed ice fabric in the same sediment after a freeze–thaw cycle have been shown to increase the hydraulic conductivity up to four orders of magnitude. This phenomenon is probably common in thawing, ice-rich sediments and presumably favours accelerated downhill movement of solutes. On level ground, it is anticipated that KCI movement is promoted by fluid densities approaching that of sea water. Laboratory experiments with thawed sand and both unfrozen and thawing Mackenzie Delta silt confirm the existence of density-driven solute movement and the importance of thawing ice fabric in promoting solute movement. The thawed ice fabric of active-layer sediments and the presence of a frost table promote lateral movement of fluids when a density or elevation gradient is present. These tendencies widen the area potentially affected by contaminant migration from abandoned waste sites and they may also promote the movement of contaminants that escape from future containments.

In Tempelfjorden and Sassenfjorden, Svalbard, 12 March to4 April 1990, a Siberian husky dog was used to detect ringed seal breathing holes in the ice, using random stratified sampling to sample 20% (40 km2) of the total area. The area was estimated to contain 997 ringed seal breathing holes, corresponding to 293 ringed seals. A maximum of 185 pups were born in the area. A breeding condition factor was constructed to enable comparisons of yearly and areal variation in ice cover and precipitation within ringed seal breeding habitats.

In November 2005 the ‘Question of Antarctica’ was taken up yet again by the UN First Committee. Following formal placement upon its agenda in 1983 by the Malaysian government, the UN has discussed the topic regularly, initially annually, then biennially, but more recently upon a triennial basis. As usual, in 2005 UN members were guided by a lengthy report produced for the United Nations Secretary General (UNSG) by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in order to outline recent developments affecting Antarctica and the Antarctic Treaty system (ATS). In November 2005 the UN First Committee, acting upon proposed amendments advanced by the Malaysian delegation, agreed to a major change of course. Thus, resolution L60, adopted by the committee without a vote, stipulated that the UN, though remaining ‘seized’ of the ‘Question of Antarctica’, would not place the topic upon the agenda of the 63rd. session in 2008. Nor would the UNSG be required, henceforth, to produce a report on Antarctica for members. In December 2005, the UN General Assembly adopted draft resolution L60 as resolution 60/47, once again without a vote. As a result, for the first time since 1983, the UN is no longer scheduled to return to the ‘Question of Antarctica’. Meanwhile, the episode has raised interesting questions about future developments: the UN's role, if any, in the ‘Question of Antarctica’, the direction of Malaysian policy towards the ATS, including membership thereof; the continued ability of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties (ATCPs) to manage Antarctica in a democratic, transparent and accountable manner without attracting criticism from the broader international community; and the relevance of the common heritage principle to the Antarctic region.

The field of Security Studies traditionally focused on military threats to states' survival, however, since the end of the Cold War the concept of security has widened and individuals and communities have gradually become viewed as appropriate referent objects of security: Multifaceted challenges facing communities at the sub-state level are increasingly regarded as security threats, including their potential to cause instability for the larger society, thus affecting states’ security. In the Arctic region, a central challenge is that inhabitants are exposed to multiple non-traditional and non-military threats resulting from environmental, economic, and societal changes, which can be understood as threats to human security. We argue that a comprehensive approach to human security overlaps with the concept of societal security, and must therefore consider threats to collective identity and the essential conditions necessary for the maintenance and preservation of a distinct society. We see the human security framework as a suitable analytical tool to study the specific challenges that threaten the Arctic population, and in turn the well-being of Arctic societies. Therefore, we argue that utilising the concept of human security can promote societal security in the context of the Arctic, and in particular, its sub-regions, for example, the Barents region.

Russia's strategy in the Arctic is dominated by two overriding international relations (IR) discourses – or foreign policy directions. On the one hand, there is an IR-realism/geopolitical discourse that puts security first and often has a clear patriotic character, dealing with ‘exploring’, ‘winning’ or ‘conquering’ the Arctic and putting power, including military power, behind Russia's national interests in the area. Opposed to this is an IR-liberalism, international law-inspired and modernisation-focused discourse, which puts cooperation first and emphasises ‘respect for international law’, ‘negotiation’ and ‘cooperation’, and labels the Arctic as a ‘territory of dialogue’, arguing that the Arctic states all benefit the most if they cooperate peacefully. After a short but very visible media stunt in 2007 and subsequent public debate by proponents of the IR-realism/geopolitical side, the IR-liberalism discourse has been dominating Russian policy in the Arctic since around 2008–2009, following a pragmatic decision by the Kremlin to let the Foreign Ministry and Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov take the lead in the Arctic. The question asked here is how solid is this IR-liberalist-dominated Arctic policy? Can it withstand the pressure from more patriotic minded parts of the Russian establishment?

Levels of some chlorinated hydrocarbon residues (HCB, HCH isomers, p,p'-DDT and related compounds, PBC congeners) in lichen and moss from Kay Island, Ross Sea, Antarctica, are reported and compared with data from similar species collected on Antarctic Peninsula. The role of the cold remote areas in the global circulation of these contaminants is briefly discussed.

The shape of the sea floor of the Arctic Basin is slowly being revealed by ice island programmes, icebreakers working the peripheral edges, under-ice nuclear submarine explorations and isolated ice landings by aircraft (Ostenso, 1962). The topographical features of the North American side of the Arctic have been studied by numerous investigators (Kutschale, 1966; DeLeeuw, 1967; Vogt and Ostenso, 1968), and are well documented. The Eurasian portion of the Arctic Basin is, however, less well known.

Permeable reactive barriers are used to adsorb contaminants from soil water. Their fillings are granular materials whose stability under freezing conditions has not been demonstrated. In this research, three granular materials (activated carbon, raw clinoptilolite and a nutrient amended clinoptilolite) were subjected to freeze-thaw cycles at different moisture conditions, in order to simulate their use in permeable reactive barriers in areas of freezing ground. The <250 μm fraction, which will potentially accumulate grain fragments, showed no change for the carbon, but an increase from ∼1% to ∼3% abundance by volume for the clinoptilolite with modes at 100–200 μm. SEM images show cracks in the zeolite grains, forming fragments of the size observed in the particle size data. These findings may have implications for the long-term permeabilities of reactive barriers operated in areas of freezing ground.

A small collection of samples from terrestrial and fresh-water habitats on Deception Island in the Maritime Antarctic South Shetland archipelago yielded 14 invertebrate taxa, including four species, which are new to the island. The database of the total Deception fauna contains 57 invertebrate taxa. These, like the flora, show evidence of posteruption colonisation by Antarctic and South American immigrant species, and historic human impact. This baseline inventory allows future monitoring of natural and anthropogenic changes to invertebrate fauna of Deception Island.

The general pattern of Antarctic tourism is well known and can be described in terms of numbers of visitors, landing sites, and general activities. However, little is known about the visitors, their behaviour, and other user characteristics. This information is vital for planning effective visitor-management strategies. This article presents and discusses some results from a 1993/94 questionnaire conducted aboard three IAATO member ships and focuses on how visitors rated the behaviour of themselves and others vis-à-vis the IAATO voluntary visitor guidelines. It also identifies how sex, age, educational level, and ship affect guideline violation or adherence. Additionally, passenger responses to hypothetical violations are discussed, which may help to explain why violations occur. This paper stresses not how many violations occur, but why they occur, providing a new insight for future visitor management.

Contamination of snow cover has been investigated in the Longyearbyen (78°13 N, 15°38 E) and Barentsburg (78°3 N, 14°12 E) areas, which are situated in the southwest part of Spitsbergen (Svalbard archipelago). Snow cover was sampled in two winter seasons, 2012–2013 and 2013–2014, at 54 locations within potentially contaminated areas. Sampling incorporated the whole snow mass and was combined with morphological observations as well as thickness and density measurements. Meltwater and suspended solids were further analysed for a wide range of contaminants including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and macro-ions. Results were contrasted with previous studies measuring the release of contaminants from snow to soil cover. It was shown in keeping with earlier studies that PAH contributions are associated with airborne particulate matter. The results, in contrast to earlier studies further demonstrated that the high concentrations of contaminants in both settlements are attributed to local sources due to combustion and industrial activity.

The Larsemann Hills provide a unique opportunity for studying the environmental impacts of four research facilities run by three nations (Australia, China, and Russia). Soil and water samples collected from the vicinity of each station approximately 10 years after their establishment were analysed for a variety of hydrocarbons, metals, and nutrients. Results confirm that hydrocarbon contamination is the most common impact of the stations. Nutrient enrichment of soil was identified within small areas of each station, and water samples obtained from several local tarns and meltpools revealed low-level contamination by metals and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). Faecal coliforms were present in intertidal pools adjacent to sewage effluent discharge but not in any other water bodies tested. The cumulative impact of the four facilities was an increase in the number of sites contaminated, rather than increased contamination at specific locations due to the additive effect of overlapping sources. The highest levels of contamination were extremely localised and the footprint of contamination arising from each of the facilities remained discrete from that of neighbouring stations. These data provide a baseline to compare environmental conditions at these locations in the Larsemann Hills before and after implementation of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty.

Greenland was used by the US as a platform and as an extended arm within its security and foreign policy during the World War II and the cold war. After this things changed, although Greenland remained important in Danish-US relations under the umbrella of NATO. Nowadays, the geostrategic position of Greenland between North America and Europe is gaining fresh prominence in the race for natural resources in the Arctic. Many issues arise from the prospective opening of the Arctic, all of which may have fateful impacts on future development in the region. Climate change, claims related to the extension of the continental shelf, exploitation and exploration of natural resources, together with the protection of indigenous peoples are all current issues that must be taken into consideration in the context of security and foreign policy formation in Greenland. The future of the Thule Air Base is also relevant. This article reviews developments from the World War II to the present regarding international relations from a Greenlandic perspective. As a self-governing sub-national territory within the realm of Denmark, Greenland does not have the ultimate decision-making power within foreign and security policy. The new Self-Government Act of 2009, however, gives Greenland some room for manoeuvre in this respect.

The period from September 1996 to September 1998 represented a transition phase in the process of circumpolar Arctic cooperation on environmental protection, which had begun in 1991 with the establishment of the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy and had been broadened with the agreement by the eight Arctic governments to create an Arctic Council. The genesis of the Arctic Council had been protracted due to diverging perspectives on various aspects of its functional scope, organisational structure, and funding and on issues of representation. This article discusses the extent to which the conflicts that had dogged the Council's genesis were resolved during its subsequent ‘post-natal’ period preparing for the Council's first ministerial-level meeting in Iqaluit in September 1998.

This paper examines the location, intensity, and frequency of zodiac landings by passengers on tourist ships in the Antarctic Peninsula region during 10 seasons, 1989/90 through 1998/99. In this period, the number of passengers increased 307%, from 2460 to 10,013. Zodiac landings have occurred at 165 Peninsula region sites, concentrating in the South Shetland Islands and the northwestern part of the Peninsula. From 1989/90 to 1998/99, the number of zodiac landings in the Peninsula region increased 423%, from 164 to 858. The most visited sites are identified, as are sites experiencing increases in the second half of this 10-year period. The 10 and 20 sites experiencing the most zodiac landings each season consistently account for approximately 55% and 75% of that season's landings, respectively. Based on 1998/99 data, sites with high or medium species diversity or with high or moderate sensitivity to potential environmental disturbance account for a significant percentage of landings. Recommendations are presented for improving the assessment of potential environmental impacts at zodiac landing sites, and for improved methods of reporting site visits by the tour operators involved.

The aim of this study is to investigate how reduction in the sea ice cover may affect oil activity in the Arctic during the next 30 years. The Arctic is divided into 21 oil provinces. A multidisciplinary approach is applied drawing on both the comparative cost techniques as developed in location theory and sea ice cover projections. The comparative cost technique implies a systematic listing of cost differentials by oil provinces. The sea ice projections are based on the NCAR CCSM3 global climate model under the A1B and A2 emission scenarios. The article concludes that the north Norwegian Sea, and south and west Barents Sea will remain the most attractive areas for oil exploration in the coming 30 years. Furthermore, due to sea ice decline, the north and east Barents Sea and north and west Kara Sea will become more attractive. However, most Arctic provinces will remain high cost regions.