Rousettus obliviosus is a megachiropteran bat endemic to the Comoros Islands in the western Indian Ocean. The species is broadly distributed on Grande Comore, Mohéli, and Anjouan, but appears to be absent from Mayotte. Roost sites were found to be both shallow and deep caves, in dark locations with infrequent human disturbance. Colony size ranged from 100 to several thousand and at two sites seasonal variation was observed. Total estimated population size was 7,100–17,100. R. obliviosus fed on a variety of native and non-native tree fruits and flowers, and was found in native forest habitats, underplanted forest and agricultural areas. R. obliviosus is a manoeuvrable flyer able to hover for brief periods and may echolocate. A small range, sensitivity to disturbance, limited roost site availability and deforestation combine to threaten this species. We suggest that the current IUCN Red List status of Lower Risk: near threatened should be revised to Vulnerable. Protection of roost sites, further surveys to identify additional roosts, further ecological research, and protection of remaining forest are conservation priorities for R. obliviosus.

During 1998–2000 extremely low densities of gorillas Gorilla gorilla gorilla and chimpanzees Pan troglodytes troglodytes were found in the Minkebe Forest block in north-eastern Gabon. When compared with data collected before 1994, these data suggest a catastrophic decline in ape populations in the area. We believe that this decline was caused by a disease epidemic. The period of decline corresponds with the Ebola outbreaks of 1994 and 1996 that occurred in the human population in the same area. Deaths of gorillas and chimpanzees were associated with both Ebola outbreaks. Data from nearby sites indicate that the epidemic was limited to the Minkebe Forest. Occurrence of such epidemic die-offs should be taken into account in conservation strategies for the long-term survival of ape populations. At the time of writing, an Ebola epidemic among humans in the Zadié Department east of Minkebe Forest has resulted in 53 deaths. In the neighbouring Republic of Congo, authorities have reported 43 deaths and at least 12 other cases of Ebola. These epidemics are believed to be linked to the handling and eating of dead apes.

The role of multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Ramsar Wetlands Convention, and the Barcelona Convention on the Mediterranean has grown increasingly important, in the context of conservation management, during the last decade as human impacts intensify and cross national boundaries more often. In resorting to MEAs it is important to maintain a clear focus on their opportunities and limitations. They are a means to resolve transboundary problems with neighbouring states and adopt harmonized approaches, they increasingly offer access to worldwide knowledge, tools and financial resources, and they can give conservation agencies a stronger mandate domestically. But they are specialized instruments focused on particular problems or sectors. The threats they address and the solutions they outline have to be evaluated in relation to overall environmental and socio-economic priorities. This entails linkages among different problems and sectors at various scales. Regional and ecosystem-level approaches are most appropriate for sorting out linkages and priorities. Extensive capacity building is needed at these levels to foster the requisite skills for integrated approaches. In addition, new mechanisms may be required at these levels to coordinate diverse specialized regimes. This does not require a monolithic, top-down approach but rather ongoing flexibility and responsiveness informed from the bottom up. We should take advantage of the new directions highlighted by the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, in 2002 and other recent international conferences to build these abilities into international governance. Conservation managers have an important role to play. By working nationally and internationally they can inform and influence the shift towards integrated and coordinated efforts, suggesting ways to accomplish this on a larger, international scale based on concrete experience in situ.

The Sumatran orang-utan Pongo abelii is categorized as Critically Endangered on the 2002 IUCN Red List. Although several reports have suggested that the species occurs in the region to the south of Lake Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia, their distribution is poorly known. In order to determine whether orang-utans still occur in this region we surveyed areas in which orang-utans have been reported as well as a number of other forested areas. Orang-utan signs were found in only two areas. This indicates that habitat loss and hunting have recently caused local extinctions. We combine these results with other available information to provide a summary of the current distribution of P. abelii in Sumatra and, based on our surveys, previous population estimates, and estimates of losses, we speculate that only c. 3,500 orang-utans still occur in the wild in Sumatra at the end of 2002.

We report the results of a survey of Fischer's turaco Tauraco fischeri in Unguja (otherwise known as Zanzibar). We estimated the species' range, population size and habitat selection using unlimited distance point counts. The main results are: 1) Fischer's turaco is more widely distributed in the coral rag zone than previously thought, with an area of occupancy estimated at 56 km2, 2) the species does not occur in agricultural habitats and tree plantations, 3) within natural habitats it selects places with denser tree cover, 4) food availability does not differ between occupied and unoccupied sites, and 5) the turaco population on Unguja was estimated at c. 1,400 individuals. Only 44% of the population is in protected areas, and habitat degradation is occurring at a high rate. Only 16% of the habitat occupied by Fischer's turaco on the island has low signs of human impact. Present levels of exploitation of natural habitats on Unguja appear to be unsustainable and it seems likely that all unprotected forests on the island will be lost within a few years. The range of Fischer's turaco is highly fragmented and the population is likely to be decreasing. This turaco was often observed in places where other threatened species were also present, suggesting that it could be both a flagship and an umbrella species for the implementation of wider habitat conservation strategies. The conservation status of Fischer's turaco should be reconsidered, with its IUCN threat-category upgraded from Lower Concern: near threatened to Vulnerable.

The Rodrigues fruit bat Pteropus rodricensis is endemic to Rodrigues Island, the smallest of the Mascarene Islands in the Indian Ocean. The species is categorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List. A study between February 2001 and February 2002 identified 10 roosts, four previously unrecorded. Roost sites were located in the north and south of the island, all within forested valleys. Sixteen counts of each roost site, evenly spaced throughout the study period, showed dramatic changes in individual colony numbers, suggesting movement between roosts. Simultaneous counts of all colonies resulted in a minimum population estimate of 5,076, which is substantially higher than previous estimates of the species. This is believed to be due to a population increase since the last count, newly identified roosts and the movement of bats into different areas, allowing more accurate counts to be made.

While conservation activities are underfunded almost everywhere, the gap between current expenditure and what is needed is particularly extreme in the tropics where threatened species and habitats are most concentrated. We examine how to bridge this funding gap. Firstly, we try to identify who in principle should pay, by comparing the spatial distribution of the costs and the benefits of tropical conservation. The immediate opportunity costs of conservation often exceed its more obvious, management-related costs, and are borne largely by local communities. Conversely, we argue that the greatest benefits of conservation derive from ecological services, and from option, existence, and bequest values; these are often widely dispersed and enjoyed in large part by wealthier national and global beneficiaries. We conclude that the gap in funding tropical conservation should be borne largely by national and especially global communities, who receive most benefit but currently pay least cost. In the second part of the paper we review recent developments in order to examine how in practice increased funding may be raised. There are many growing and novel sources of support: private philanthropy, premium pricing for biodiversity-related goods via certification schemes, and the development of entirely new markets for environmental services. Despite their potential, we conclude that the principal route for meeting the unmet costs of tropical conservation will have to be via governments, and will inevitably require the transfer of substantial resources from north to south. This will be enormously difficult, both politically and logistically, but without it we believe that much of what remains of tropical nature will be lost.

Kinaka or Chikanda has been eaten by people in parts of Zambia, northern Malawi and south-western Tanzania for hundreds of years. Prepared from the boiled root tubers of terrestrial orchids, and principally from species of the genera Disa, Habenaria and Satyrium, it was formerly a traditional village delicacy and did not pose a threat to orchid populations. However, the past decade has witnessed a dramatic rise in demand in Zambia, particularly in urban areas. This has triggered a burgeoning commercial market and has now prompted traders to seek tubers from Tanzania's Southern Highlands, an important centre of endemism for upland species of orchid. The resulting cross-border trade, its dynamics and the implications for Tanzanian orchids are reported here for the first time. Whilst all orchid species are in CITES Appendix II, collectors are currently harvesting between 2.2 and 4.1 million tubers per year for export to, and consumption in, neighbouring Zambia. As many as 85 species may be at risk from this trade, and there is evidence that large areas in Ufipa, Mbeya and Kipengere have already been stripped of their orchids. A decline in traditional Tanzanian consumption of Kinaka seems to be having little or no impact on harvesting volumes. Orchid collection across the Southern Highlands is now escalating at a rate that may be far from sustainable. The consequences for Tanzanian biodiversity and for one of Africa's most important areas for orchids are profound.

From July 1998 to July 2000 we collected locality information and habitat associations for 36 records of the Endangered ocelot Leopardus pardalis in the Mexican State of Sonora. Twenty-seven (75%) of the records for which we could determine the biotic community association were associated with tropical and subtropical habitats, namely subtropical thornscrub, tropical deciduous forest or tropical thornscrub. Only males (11.1% of the total records) have been recorded in temperate oak and pine-oak woodland, and we conclude that the few ocelots reported from these habitats in the US State of Arizona were probably dispersing individuals. Three models of ocelot distribution in Sonora, based on vegetation types, the GARP modelling system and the Adaptive Kernel home range estimator, all produced similar results, with the ocelot mostly associated with the mountainous Sierra region of eastern Sonora. Large tracts of land with a low human population density make Sonora a stronghold for the northernmost distribution of ocelots.

Fauna & Flora International (FFI) celebrates its centenary in 2003. It was founded as the Society for the Preservation of the Wild Fauna of the Empire (SPWFE) in London in 1903. This paper analyses the events, people, and debates behind its formation and early development. It discusses why the Society was formed, how it worked, and what its main concerns were. It considers the nature and success of the Society's work from 1903 to 1914 in influencing the British Colonial Office's policy on issues such as game reserves, hunting and wildlife clearance for tsetse control in Africa. The SPWFE drew together an elite group of colonial administrators, hunters and other experts on game in Africa, and was effective in lobbying the Colonial Office about preservation. Many of its concerns, and ideas about how to address them, are similar to those that are current today, a century after its establishment.

Olive ridley turtles Lepidochelys olivacea nest along the east and west coasts of India, with major mass nesting beaches in the state of Orissa. The coast of Andhra Pradesh, the state immediately south of Orissa, has sporadic nesting of olive ridley turtles and is believed to form part of the migratory route of the turtles that nest in Orissa. A survey of nesting beaches and offshore waters of the Andhra Pradesh coast was carried out from November 2000 to April 2001. Preliminary interviews and secondary data were used to determine potential nesting beaches. During January–March 2001 intensive surveys of seven beaches and monthly surveys of the rest of the coast provided a lower bound of c. 4,000 nests along the Andhra Pradesh coast. Nesting densities were higher at beaches near river mouths, at 60–100 nests km−1 in northern and central Andhra Pradesh, and 15–20 nests km−1 in southern Andhra Pradesh. Sightings and incidental catch in experimental trawls indicated the presence of olive ridley turtles in offshore waters. Fisheries related mortality is the major threat to the species, with nearly 1,000 dead turtles being washed ashore during January–March, but depredation of eggs by humans and feral animals was also widespread. Conservation efforts need to address these issues, and also the effects of coastal development and artificial illumination, especially at beaches that support relatively high densities of nesting olive ridley turtles.

The Ethiopian wolf Canis simensis is endemic to the Afroalpine highlands of Ethiopia. Half of the world population, estimated at c. 500 individuals, lives in the Bale Mountains of southern Ethiopia. Little is known, however, about the presence of wolves and suitable habitat in other Afroalpine ranges. Assessing the distribution, abundance and threats to all extant populations is a conservation priority for this Critically Endangered canid. With these objectives in mind, surveys were conducted between 1997 and 2000 in the little known regions of Arsi, Wollo, Gondar and Shoa. Suitable habitat and resident wolves were found in all regions. Outside Bale the existence of six other isolated populations, including two previously undescribed, was confirmed. All were small, estimated at no more than 50 individuals, and some with <25 individuals. Two population extinctions were documented, and habitat loss to agriculture largely explained local extinctions in small habitat patches. While Bale remains crucial for the long-term persistence of this species, the finding of several small and threatened populations highlights the need for in situ conservation actions to be expanded to other regions of the Ethiopian highlands.

The Critically Endangered Burmese star tortoise Geochelone platynota is endemic to the dry zone of central Myanmar. Although quantitative assessments are lacking, populations are believed to be in decline throughout its limited range due to over-collecting for international markets. We conducted star tortoise surveys during 2000–2001 at two sites in central Myanmar: Minzontaung Wildlife Sanctuary, a protected area established in 1998–1999, and Myaleik Taung, an area recently proposed for protected status. G. platynota populations of global conservation significance were found at both sites. Because tortoises are protected by local religious beliefs and commercial collecting is so far non-existent, the Sanctuary and Myaleik Taung offer excellent prospects for star tortoise conservation. The Sanctuary is well patrolled, protected from wildfires, and access is rigorously controlled. Recommended conservation actions at Myaleik Taung include management of livestock grazing, prescribed burning, and elimination of fuelwood cutting.

Knowledge of conflicts between people and protected areas is required for the design of sustainable conservation strategies for the management of most protected areas. This study identifies the causes of conflicts between local people and the Bénoué Wildlife Conservation Area (BWCA), which includes the Bénoué National Park, in northern Cameroon. Informal interviews and questionnaires were administered to 114 households in three communities, and to 17 Park staff and seven professional hunting guides. Crop damage affected 86% of the surveyed households, with 31% of crop income lost on average, and with the damage varying significantly between communities. Elephants, baboons, patas monkeys, warthogs and green parrots accounted for 97% of crop damage, with the staple foods maize and millet being most affected. Of the respondents, 28% experienced livestock depredation, with 18% of livestock income lost on average. The civet cat was the main predator. The involvement of local people in illegal activities, their lack of access to natural resources, and damage by wildlife were identified as principal causes of conflicts. Local people, park staff and professional hunting guides had diverse and differing perceptions about the causes of the conflicts, and made various suggestions for reduction of wildlife damage including animal scaring and controlled shooting. We conclude that, under current wildlife policy, conflict between people and BWCA is difficult to resolve. To reduce conflicts and promote sustainable conservation, we suggest co-management of wildlife involving all stakeholders, establishment of crop damage control teams, and promotion of tangible benefits to local people. There may be a requirement for site-specificity inmanagement strategies.

The threatened Kirtland's warbler Dendroica kirtlandii breeds in stands of young jack pine Pinus banksiana growing on well-drained soils in Michigan, USA. We summarize information documenting the range expansion of Kirtland's warbler due to increased habitat management in the core breeding range in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan during 1990–2000. We collected records and conducted searches for the species in Michigan's Upper Peninsula and Wisconsin over 1978–2000. During that time 25 males were found in Wisconsin and 90 males in the Upper Peninsula. We documented colonization of Michigan's Upper Peninsula by six ringed males from the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. Four ringed birds also moved back to the core breeding range, including two males that made two-way movements between the core breeding range and the Upper Peninsula. Thirty-seven females were observed with males from 1995 to 2000, all in Michigan. Nesting activities were noted for 25 pairs and at least nine nests fledged young. One male ringed as a fledgling returned to breed in two subsequent years. After a 19-year period of population stability, the Kirtland's warbler population increased four-fold during 1990–2000, most likely in response to a tripling in habitat area. This increase in sightings and documented breeding may be related to habitat availability in Michigan's Upper Peninsula and to saturation of habitat in the main breeding range. The increase in extra-limital records during 1995–1999 corresponds to the time when the population went from the minimum to the maximum projected population densities, and a decline in natural wildfire habitat was just offset by new managed habitat for the Kirtland's warbler.

Few published records exist for the Endangered Andean mountain cat Oreailurus jacobita, a rare and little known felid restricted to high altitudes of the Andes of South America. We present 20 new records for the species, and analyse its altitudinal overlap with the sympatric pampas cat Oncifelis colocolo, a widespread habitat generalist, in north-west Argentina. Our data confirm the recent presence of the Andean mountain cat at several locations in Jujuy, Salta, and Catamarca provinces. Nevertheless, densities appear to be much lower than those of the pampas cat. This Lower Risk, near threatened species represented 68% of the records for small cats at high altitudes and its altitudinal range overlapped with the lower 1,000 m of the range of the Andean mountain cat. Protected areas for the Andean mountain cat in Argentina should be above 3,500 m and have a high proportion of habitat above 4,000 m, where the abundance of potential competitors is lower.

We present the first population estimate for the Natuna leaf monkey Presbytis natunae, endemic to the island of Bunguran, Indonesia, based on a 2-month survey. Bunguran has a land area of only 1,605 km2 and was until 1980 largely covered in primary forest. At present primary forest exists only in small patches within a matrix of logged forest, which covers nearly 70% of the island. Natuna leaf monkeys are confined to forest and have a preference for primary lowland forest patches. Groups average 3.5 ± SD 2.0 individuals and occur in a density of 2.3 ± SD 1.1 groups per km2. Extrapolation of the density estimates to the entire island indicates that <10,000 individuals remain in two subpopulations. On Bunguran these monkeys make popular pets and the species is threatened in part by the demand for captive individuals but mostly by continuing degradation and reduction of forest. An assessment of the species following IUCN threat criteria indicates that it should be categorized as Vulnerable. We make a number of recommendations for the conservation of the species, most importantly the implementation by the district government of Natuna of two strict conservation areas on the island, and the maintaining of a larger area of sustainably used natural forest.

Managers attempting to reduce crop damage by elephants encounter a range of complex technical and social issues. Subsistence farmers bear the costs associated with maintaining wild elephant populations and this can confound interventions designed to improve the livelihood security of farmers. We present a review of the issues that influence the success and failure of methods used to reduce crop damage, and suggest that an integrated, community-based, low-tech approach will be the most sustainable solution to this conflict.