The views of categorisation presented in this paper along with my own are for the purpose of providing background for current taxonomic projects related to electroacoustic music (e.g. EARS: ElectroAcoustic Resource Site). The views might be summarised as top-down (ontology) as described in Peterson, bottom-up (folksonomy) as described in Shirkey and Weinberger, and a view from the middle ground (TagOntology) as described in Gruber. Semantic Wikipedia enters this discourse in relation to what one might call folk-ontology. It is crucial to conduct experimentation with minimal specifications and practical methodologies in order to facilitate the interoperability of dynamic, emergent knowledge bases within the Semantic Web context.

Sixty years ago, musique concrète was born of the single-handed efforts of one man, Pierre Schaeffer. How did the first experiments become a School and produce so many rich works? As this issue of Organised Sound addresses various aspects of the GRM activities throughout sixty years of musical adventure, this article discusses the musical thoughts behind the advent and the development of the music created and theoretised at the Paris School formed by the Schaefferian endeavours. Particular attention is given to the early twentieth-century conceptions of musical sounds and how poets, artists and musicians were expressing their quest for, as Apollinaire put it, ‘new sounds new sounds new sounds’. The questions of naming, gesture, sound capture, processing and diffusion are part of the concepts thoroughly revisited by the GRMC, then the GRM in 1958, up to what is known as acousmatic music. Other contributions, such as Teruggi's, give readers insight into the technical environments and innovations that took place at the GRM. This present article focuses on the remarkable unity of the GRM. This unity has existed alongside sixty years of activity and dialogue with researchers of other fields and constant attention to the latter-day scientific, technological and philosophical ideas which have had a strong influence in shaping the development of GRM over the course of its history.

There is growing evidence of widespread acceptance of timbre as a primary surface feature and as a structural device in music across genres. This is a result of a growing body of source material available in musical contexts through recording and sampling. Composers using new sounds are creating new musical syntax and structures, and consequently, new contexts and paradoxical or ‘synchretic’ situations that motivate resolution by the listener. New source materials, syntax, structure and synchresis pose challenges for the analyst in this largely non-notated music as well. Research in perception and the formation of conceptual frameworks is providing key information towards understanding this growing timbral common practice and how to talk about it with cogency and depth.

The work of Pierre Schaeffer (theorist, composer and inventor of musique concrète) bears a complex relationship to the philosophical school of phenomenology. Although often seen as working at the periphery of this movement, this paper argues that Schaeffer's effort to ground musical works in a ‘hybrid discipline’ is quite orthodox, modelled upon Husserl's foundational critique of both ‘realism’ and ‘psychologism’. As part of this orthodoxy, Schaeffer develops his notion of the ‘sound object’ along essentialist (eidetic) lines. This has two consequences: first, an emphasis is placed on ‘reduced listening’ over indicative and communicative modes of listening; secondly, the ‘sound object’ promotes an ahistorical ontology of musical material and technology. Despite frequent references to Schaeffer and the ‘sound object’ in recent literature on networked music, concatenative synthesis and high-level music descriptors, the original phenomenological context in which Schaeffer's work developed is rarely revisited. By critically exploring Schaeffer's theorising of the ‘sound object’, this paper aims at articulating the distance between contemporary and historical usage of the term.

The challenges of understanding musical meaning are considered in light of ways in which electroacoustic practice and acousmatic listening might embody yet further nuances in how music can function as a signifying system. ‘Classical’ semiotics is discussed, as well as more recent developments with post-structuralist approaches and musical semantics in other areas of music scholarship. The idea, inherited from the tradition of ‘absolute music’, that musical meaning lies exclusively in the inner operations of the musical materials and their structural organisation, is questioned. Concepts from ecologically inspired music psychology are drawn upon to highlight the importance of interpretation, as well as perception, in acousmatic listening. It is argued that if new theoretical terminologies are needed, an invaluable project would be to develop a taxonomy (and thus theoretical framework) of how sound can ‘stand for something’, i.e. function as a sign in semiotic terms. It is also argued that such terminology should not reinforce distinctions between intra- and extra-musical that feature in many theoretical constructs used in relation to this music. Consideration of the Peircean semiotic model in electroacoustic music (as well as the more widely used Saussurean one), tropology in the study of literature, and a much more widely comparative and culturally explicit approach to analysis are suggested as practical starting points. A more critical approach to the integral role of sound recording and reproduction in relation to concepts of representation is needed.

The year 1958 witnessed the birth of the institution GRM, nurtured by the French Radio and Television service (RTF). However, the fifty years of the GRM cannot be dissociated from the preceding period, datable from 1942, when Pierre Schaeffer began experiments with radiophonic sound which led him to musique concrète while bringing into existence the institutional infrastructure of the group. We can therefore see the Studio d'Essai (1942–46), the Club d'Essai (1946–60) with its Groupe de Recherche de Musique Concrète (GRMC, 1951–58) as forebears of the GRM. The fundamental principle, which lies in working with sonic material directly on the recording media through a precise listening to recorded elements, led Schaeffer to affirm that there is another way to access music other than from notation.

He used this powerful idea as the fixed point on the compass for all his research. Linked from its origins to the broadcasting services – RTF until 1964, ORTF up to 1974, then INA ever since – the GRM has constantly adapted its theories and its ideas to successive technological developments: smooth disks (shellac records), magnetic tape, computer memory. A fruitful period at the Service de la Recherche (1960–75) allowed Schaeffer and his team to systematically examine the world of sounds from their own listening experience. The Traité des Objets Musicaux (Treatise of Musical Objects) bears witness to this research. Since 1975 another adventure has been under way: that of the preservation and making available of works and discoveries gathered over the years – an exceptional heritage which continues to grow and interest an ever larger public.

Interactive electroacoustic music that alters or extends instrumental timbre, samples it, or generates sound based upon data generated in real time by the performer presents a new set of challenges for the performing musician. Unlike tape music, interactive music can continuously vary its response and, frequently, performers are unable are to predict how the computer will react. Many, if not most, scores include no visual representation of how the computer may affect the sound of the instrument.

Providing performers with a readily accessible visual representation of the sonic possibilities of interactive computer music will provide a conceptual framework within which performers can understand a piece of music. Interpretation of this type of notation by the performer will provide a perspective on how his or her acoustic instrument relates to the digital instrument. This can be especially useful when improvised or aleatoric methods are called for.

This paper outlines a system of interactive computer-music descriptive notation that links pictographic representations to the system of spectromorphologies suggested by Dennis Smalley. The morphological notation (MN) uses these morphologies and adds a z-plane to the well-established time-vs-pitch schema. Ideally, MN will not only represent the sound data of the moment, but also will be an intuitive picture of the musical possibilities of a composition's electronic component.

When studying the history and evolution of the GRM, one of its outstanding features has been its continuous energy dedicated to developing machines, systems and, in recent years, software that would better serve composers' views and intentions. Unique discoveries were made that have become the fundamental concepts of sound manipulation and have influenced researchers and developers in the conception of new, but always somehow faithful to the original, tools for composition. Many steps pave this road, some are known and recognised, others were necessary failures that permitted inventors to re-focus and realise their thoughts.

The capacity for electroacoustic music to project and manipulate sonic images is now acknowledged as a cornerstone of the medium's aesthetic potential. The notion of imagery may be used in a range of ways, reflecting electroacoustic music's potential to present sound ‘documents’ re-contextualised from real-world experience, as well as to project more abstract entities in which the concept of an image may give coherent form to fantastical constructs, frequently driven by the transforming and distortive effects of signal processing. This paper investigates the practical application of these distinctions in electroacoustic music, largely through reflective discussion of the author's own working methods, and evaluates ways in which the aesthetic effects of signal processing can influence the nature and construction of sound images. Within this, Denis Smalley's concept of the indicative field is used as a conceptual tool for the characterisation and analysis of the affective dimensions of sound image construction and manipulation.

The analytical discussion of acousmatic music can benefit from being based on spatial concepts, and this article aims to provide a framework for investigation. A personal experience of soundscape listening is the starting point, and uncovers basic ideas relating to the disposition and behaviour of sounding content, and listening strategy. This enables the opening out of the discussion to include source-bonded sounds in general, giving particular consideration to how experience of sense modes other than the aural are implicated in our understanding of space, and in acousmatic listening. Attention then shifts to a source-bonded spatial model based on the production of space by the gestural activity of music performance, prior to focusing in more detail on acousmatic music, initially by delving into spectral space, where ideas about gravitation and diagonal forces are germane. This leads to concepts central to the structuring of perspectival space in relation to the vantage point of the listener. The final section considers a methodology for space-form investigation.

The technological changes of the twentieth century obliged research institutes to rethink their role in society. A place for invention and reflection, and a centre for the preservation of our musical heritage, the Groupe de Recherches Musicales must open its doors from now on and increase its collaboration with other bodies in an enlarged form: an extended ‘group’, extramural, which shares its tools and thoughts with others.

The last fifty years has witnessed an enormous development with regard to sound production, and has opened a new world of novel aural experiences. In order to be able to articulate and discuss these experiences there is a need for a corresponding novel set of terms and concepts. Such a terminology would also be relevant for analytical and interpretive approaches to electroacoustic music, avant-garde Western music, and ethno music. Pierre Schaeffer's typomorphology, developed in the 1960s, proposed a variety of novel terms, but they have not been of widespread use, since they unfortunately did not lend themselves very well for practical analysis. The present paper intends to develop Schaeffer's approach in the direction of a practical tool for conceptualising and notating sound quality. While carefully reducing the sometimes-bewildering number of terms found in Schaeffer's work, it introduces a set of graphic symbols apt for transcribing electroacoustic music in a concise score. The analysis of sound objects calls for a specific listeners' intention, called reductive listening.

Among the questions regularly put to me, those that recur most often touch upon three aspects, three things to consider that are, truth to tell, unending within the domain of organised sounds. Those questions that take the lead are usually concerned with space – the representation of space as well as the production of space. Then come those that deal with listening, active or passive. Last are those relating to tools for making and for listening. Together, these approaches run through the stages that are very natural in position problematics: where, when, how, for whom, why? I would like, in formulating these repeated questions once more, to make myself re-orientate them in such a way to show that by bringing to bear forty years of experience, I have tried to reply to them as much through practice as through theory, putting forward the idea of a family of operational concepts linked together through the perceptual radical ‘acous’: acousmatic, acousmonium, acousmographe, acousmathèque.

Wireless Fantasy, Vladimir Ussachevsky's 4½-minute tribute to the birth of wireless radio, utilises a rich collection of sound materials, from antique spark generators and shortwave radio sounds to a recorded segment of Wagner's Parsifal. Wireless Fantasy is here examined not as much for the cultural meaning of its sources but for insight into Ussachevsky's dramatic counterpointing of those sources in real time. The analytical methodology focuses on pitch, rhythm, and timbre equally, using both standard music notation and spectral analysis to examine the contrapuntal elements in this classic electroacoustic composition. Special attention is paid to the coincidence of accent between the source materials that generates the work's climax and to the involvement of all the sources in articulating its final cadence. The larger issue of quotation within electroacoustic composition is discussed with regard to an abstract reference in the work's coda.

In the domain of music for performers and electronic sounds (whether fixed or live) there are various paradigms of interaction: the performer(s) may be situated in an electroacoustic ‘environment’; there may be a primarily responsorial or ‘proliferating’ relationship; or the relationship may be closer to the traditional one between soloist and accompaniment. These paradigms preserve a relatively unproblematic dichotomy between performer, whose sound is inextricably linked to a sense of action, presence and spontaneity, and fixed or treated sound, which is more or less de-coupled from this presence. Once one tries to create a continuous, intimate relation between the two, so that one is dealing with an extension of the instrument rather than an emulated ‘other’ or environmental context, one is confronted with a fundamental difference between a sounding body whose physical properties transparently determine its sonic possibilities, and the loudspeaker, which can produce practically any sound at all. This paper interrogates this dichotomy between the fallible-corporeal and the fixed-disembodied, activating questions both about the social fact of live performance and about the compositional practices which give rise to a sense of extended instrumentality.

In this article the authors present an overview of the current situation in Ukraine, with regards to the question of analytical terminology applied to new methods of creation in electronic music composition. The article establishes the differences and the similarities between the analyses of instrumental and electronic music structures, while considering the role of technology in the creation of new electronic music works. This paper also establishes a link between the origin of current analytical processes and electronic music practice in Ukraine, taking into account the function of a given terminology and its characteristic elements relating to a local geographical and cultural context. The authors underline the importance of integrating new music forms in academic circles and discuss external influences in the development of new musical systems. This is demonstrated by exposing selected musical materials, which can be considered representative of the creative and theoretical processes found in the field of electronic music in Ukraine.

The ‘technological revolution’ that took place in music during the twentieth century is equivalent to the revolution that took place between the twelfth and fourteenth century, which transformed musical notation into applications of technology related to creation. This second revolution, as well as the first one, concerns not only musical form, but also the social organisation related to music. The aesthetic of sound is the key factor (in all the genres of contemporary music), which is a major challenge for musical analysis. Society is reorganising itself, favouring the appropriation and amateur practices within musical creation. Musical research institutions – and particularly the GRM – develop new forms of collaboration with their audience and contribute to the constitution of a ‘horizontal’ society, based on exchange, in frank opposition with the ‘vertical’ society, based on a reduced number of producers and a large amount of consumers.