A Material Flow Analysis (MFA) of cadmium for Europe (EU 27)is described in this paper. In general the purpose of this MFA is toprovide a reliable set of time series data on the flows and stocks ofcadmium as they pass through the European economy.
For the data on cadmium flows in Europe various sources,statistics and surveys were taken into account. Data on importand export statistics, production and consumption of cadmiumuse, hidden flows of cadmium, the recovery and recycling ofcadmium, especially batteries, as well as disposal and losses wereconsidered.
The study includes the whole life cycle of cadmium, startingfrom the raw material extraction, which is the basis for the metalproduction. Cadmium, as it is produced as a by-product of thezinc, lead and copper refinery, is further treated throughoutvarious processes. Within the production and manufacturing,pre-consumer scrap is returned directly to the main productionprocess. Afterwards the cadmium is used within various products,e.g. batteries. After the use phase, having reached the end-of-lifewithin a specific application field, cadmium is recycled. What is notcollected for recycling or returned to the recycling system, is lost inthe environment. Finally, during the recycling process, cadmium isreturned to the cadmium cycle as post-consumer scrap and whatcould not be recycled is disposed.
One important outcome of the MFA of cadmium was the gainedknowledge on available data and data sources within thecadmium industry. In particular, the inconsistency between thedata sources became obvious. Nevertheless a comprehensivesystem was established which summarizes the cadmium flowsin Europe and set up a MFA model as well as the linkages toavailable data sources of the cadmium industry. In addition tothe data management system, the data gaps of relevance wereidentified to support future activities in this field.

The concept of forced alloys is explained and application examples are described. Systematic experiments with natural test pieces and by computer simulations show that, under the working conditions studied (irradiation, crushing, cyclic loading), the alloy may reach a stationnary configuration. Among the parameters controlling this process, the working intensity is of particular importance. The introduced concepts are applied to the study of the wear behaviour of fast train wheels (TGV). Wear rates and out-of-roundness are found to be proportional to this intensity.

The formation of recrystallization microstructure and texture in ferritic steel sheets used in the automotive industry is presented and involved mechanisms are discussed in connection with the substructure formed during the deformation preceding the annealing. Nucleation principally happens in the gamma-fibre grains, which develop smaller deformation cells and higher local misorientations than the alpha-fibre grains. The development of the nuclei is then analyzed by analogy with the abnormal coarsening which sometimes occurs after recrystallization. Finally, some relations between recrystallization textures / microstructures and mechanical properties are shown, like the effect of the rolling level on the anisotropy or the decrease of mechanical properties when under-recrystallisation happens.

The corrosion resistance of two aluminium alloys, 6063 and 3003, has been compared using a 0.5 M sodium chloride solution. The results obtained with electrochemical and metallographic techniques show that alloy 6063 is more resistant than alloy 3003 at 25°C. The corrosion rate tends to increase as the pH deviates from neutrality. When the chloride concentration is decreased, the resistance to pitting corrosion is improved for both alloys. The influence of the temperature of the medium on the behaviour of the two alloys has also been studied. In the case of alloy 3003, the corrosion rate (Icor) increases with temperature up to 55°C, but drops back to its room temperature value at 65°C. In the case of alloy 6063, Icor decreases as temperature is raised up to 65°C. At all testing temperatures, the 6063 alloy has a better corrosion resistance than the 3003 alloy.

Considerable changes of the blast furnace have occurred during the last 250 years including technology changes (dimensions, ancillaries, charging, casting) as well as operating parameters (fuels, ores, blast temperatures, productivity). Such evolutions have led to a better description of the reactor through internal measurements and more and more precise heat and mass balances and to the formulation of the final blast furnace theory in the late fifties. From the 17th to the 20th century, a number of Scientists have brought their contributions to the blast furnace theory up until the final paradigm shift in the fifties. This paper highlights French contributions to this scientific history, in relation with the advances of blast furnace theory in other countries.

The understanding of the molecular aspects of adhesion needs the determination of the molecular order of macromolecular chains at the polymer/metal interface. Thin supported polymer films are studied by FTIR reflectance analysis (IRRAS). It is shown that the development of specific acid-base interactions at the interface is able to strongly organize and order macromolecular chains at the vicinity of the interface. Microstructural parameters of the polymer are shown to influence both interfacial organization and adhesion.

The quality and quantity of steel treated in an RH vessel can beenhanced through the optimization of the metallurgical reactionsoccurring during vacuum treatment and with an improvement in theequipment design and plant layout to reduce production-time losses.The enlargement of the diameter of the snorkel and vesselcontribute to an accelerated reaction rate inside the vessel and to anincrease in the overall productivity of an RH plant. With the introductionof twin-station RH plants in connection with a quick vesselexchangedesign, the loss of production time due to ladle transfer,vessel exchange and snorkel maintenance can be significantly reduced.

Understanding thermal transfer mechanisms in BOF converter is akey for higher energy efficiency, involving higher production capacityand lower CO2 emissions through low hot metal ratio capability.The developed model achieves a coupled description of the majorphenomena: refining reactions, mass transfers between phases, scrapmelting, post-combustion, slag formation. The calculated exhaustfumes enthalpy is fitting well the measured thermal balance trials withindustrial converter when implementing a detailed description of thepost-combustion. This model, compatible with real-time use, is also avaluable tool for further improvement in dynamic control of the process.

Refractory products greatly affect steel quality and cleanliness. Some examples of interactions between refractories-slag-steel on steel desulfurization and carbon pick up in ultra-low carbon steel during the secondary treatment processes are presented. Consequences of refractory behaviour with respect to liquid steel cleanliness during continuous casting are examined : reoxidation of the metal, transfer of elements in the tundish, alumina clogging, etc. Methods for further improvements are indicated.

MOGADOR is a 2D mathematical model of the blast furnaceat steady state. In this project, it is used to get a better insightof the internal state of the BF, as the new types of operationdiffer greatly from the conventional one. Three importantapplications for the project are illustrated.


The projects of Arcelor innovation R&D aim at developments having a time to market from a few months, for the most advanced, up to the end of the decade, for the most futuristic. They are carried out in partnership with the automotive industry. Ultra-high strength steels are a recent major innovation. They offer an effective answer to the request for improved safety and reduced energy consumption and contribute to sustainable development. The author introduces three major innovative developments: new technologies for high strength steels implementation, new openings for an improved cost/weight saving balance, new surface properties, based on nanotechnology. It is the ambitious claim of Arcelor, now and for the future, to afford steel solutions for all purposes, in particular for the automotive industry. The Arcelor-Nippon Steel collaboration makes it possible to bring an even better answer to the request of customers for further developments.

The efficiency of automatic flatness control systems in hot rolling mills is based mainly on the capability of the installed instrumentation to provide accurate flatness measurements, on accurate prediction models, and on the selection of an optimum control concept. BFI, together with Thyssen Krupp Stahl, has recently developed a new topometric flatness measurement device (called TopPlan) and advanced flatness control strategies (providing time delay compensation, systematic analysis of shape errors and exact distribution of shape coefficients to be controlled by actuator sets) that offer advantages over conventional techniques and lead to significant improvements in hot rolling processes and strip shape. The present article aims to demonstrate the principles and advantages of these technologies.

The paper presents a review of the current knowledge on the influence of gaseous atmospheres, and primarily ambient air, on fatigue crack propagation in metallic alloys. Experimental evidence of the effect of exposure to ambient air or any moist environment on fatigue crack propagation in steels is first proposed. The different interacting processes are analyzed so as to clearly uncouple the influence of the various factors on crack growth resistance. Two distinct mechanisms are identified : the adsorption of vapour molecules and hydrogen assisted fracture at crack tip.

A fast-computing model for crown and flatness in hot strip rolling and plate rolling has been developed based on steady-state elastic-plastic finite element simulations and an elastic buckling analysis. A single, geometry-independent tuning coefficient needs to be identified for each steel grade family. As a result, the model can be efficiently tuned to production mills. Implementation into the set-up environment “CID” of the SOLLAC Méditerranée hot strip mill is presented.

Mechanisms of deformation in an age-hardenable Ni-Mo-Cr alloy containing large precipitates of the coherent ordered phase were investigated. The dominant deformation mechanism in the examined alloy depended on the applied amount of strain: for low strains micro-twinning within the ordered precipitates and dislocation slip in the matrix prevailed; at higher strains the f.c.c. twinning became the major deformation mechanism. Micro-twinning within the ordered phase was size related - micro-twins occur in large precipitates at relatively small strains. Twinning within the ordered precipitates may occur in all possible twin systems. Ten out of twelve possible twinning systems lead to the formation of true twins, and the long range order is preserved in the twinned regions. Formation of shear bands at high strains destroys the long range order.

PARE has developed an electrode wear monitoring system. Theyhave implemented such systems at the three electric arc furnaces(two DC, one AC) located in Luxembourg. The goal of these systemsis twofold: first it allows the steelmaker to continuously monitor itsgraphite consumption and relate it to the furnace operating conditions;second it allows a feedback to the electrode suppliers for qualitymonitoring.

Frequently, it is desired to preserve the original tones of copper, brass and bronze surfaces which are used in decorative areas. This can be achieved by applying clear protective coatings, acting as weather barriers and surface protections against mechanical aggressions. The performance of two clear coatings and a hard coating is evaluated, using a linear scratch test and abrasion tests. The hybrid sol-gel coating greatly improves the wear resistance of brass. The corrosion-resistant varnish tested has very poor wear resistance. Too thin and porous hard-coating layers have poor corrosion and abrasion resistance. The hybrid sol-gel coating gives the best compromise in terms of aspect, properties and cost.

Fluid flow phenomena are very closely related to the casting quality and surface finish of the cast part. In addition, the good quality of the casting product can be achieved by using an optimum gating system design. In this work, a vortex well, which is one of the important components of gating system design, is utilized in order to demonstrate its effectiveness in improving the mechanical and microstructure properties of the cast part. An X-ray radiography test was performed in order to investigate the porosity distribution in castings with different vortex well dimensions. The scatter of flexure strength results was quantified by Weibull statistics. Microstructure analysis was conducted by using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) to examine the microstructure of selected casting specimens produced from the vortex well design. By optimizing the vortex well design, porosity inside the casting was significantly reduced, while the mechanical strength and reliability of aluminum casting were further enhanced.

The major objective of this research is to develop a 3-D FEM simulationtechnique in order to analyze the deformation behavior of surfacedefects on hot rolling. The developed technique will be applied toquantify the relationship between rolling condition and the processparameters, and the rolling pattern will be tested to verify and validatethe simulation technique. This technique will allow us to quantify theshrinkage of slab width at the head and tail, width spread after thehorizontal rolling, dog-bone shape, position change of the slab corneras the slab is being rolled, strain distributions. And the shape changeof surface defects in hot rolling was investigated using the 3-D rollingsimulation technique. The proposed prediction method of surfacedefect can be utilized to make defect free products in rolling.

In order to explain and simulate the behaviour of real, complex gas-solid reactive systems, we developed a new kinetic model which describes the coupled phenomena of chemical reaction, diffusion, heat transfer and porosity evolution. The model was successfully applied to the hydrofluorination of uranium dioxide. The difference in reactivity between two dioxides has been related to their initial pore structure and its evolution.