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Consequences of a flawed presidential election

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2018

Edwin Odhiambo Abuya
Edwin Odhiambo Abuya*
Affiliation:
Nairobi University School of Law
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Abstract

This paper evaluates the impact of a substandard presidential election. Using Kenya as a case study, it reviews the 2007 vote. The paper contends that there is a link between free and fair elections and the enjoyment of human rights. It argues that in order for states in Africa to walk the (desired) democratic path, sitting governments must comply with internationally recognised standards. While focusing on the violence that rocked the country, the paper analyses the causes and implications of the much-disputed presidential poll. Also evaluated is the role the international community can play in resolving a crisis. The paper concludes by asserting that a rule of law culture must be embraced if human rights and democracy are to flourish in Africa.

Type
Research Article
Information
Legal Studies , Volume 29 , Issue 1 , March 2009 , pp. 127 - 158
Copyright
Copyright © Society of Legal Scholars 2009

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References

1 National Anthem of Kenya.

2 For these standards, see International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, GA Res 2200(XXI) UN GAOR, 21st Sess, Supp No 16 at 52, UN Doc A/6316 (1966), 999 UNTS 171 (entered into force 23 March 1976) (ICCPR), Arts 2(3) and 25; Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UNGA Res 217 A, GAOR, 3d Sess, 183 plen Mtg at 22, UN Doc A/810 (1948) (UDHR), Arts 8 and 21.

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6 UNHCR 12,000 Kenyan Refugees Now in Uganda, available at http://www.unhcr.org/news/NEWS/47a85a4e2.html.

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8 Gambian Constitution 1996, s 26; Afghan Constitution 2004, Art 33.

9 Section 15.

10 Section 2A (‘There shall be in Kenya only one political party, the Kenya African National Union’).

11 By Act No 12 of 1991.

12 Section 1A of the Constitution declares that Kenya is a ‘multiparty democratic state’.

13 See s 9.

14 See ss 41, 42 and 42A of the Constitution. National Assembly and Presidential Elections Act 1969, s 17A.

15 This is a requirement under s 5(3)(f) of the Constitution.

16 Section 9(2).

17 EU Election Observation Mission (EU EOM) Kenya General Elections: 27 December 2002 p 6, available at http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/human_rights/eu_election_ass_observ/Kenya/rep02.pdf. See also Commonwealth Observer Group Kenya General Election: 27 December 2002 p 27, available at http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Shared_ASP_Files/UploadedFiles/63FCFC4C-2E1C-42DC-9C4A-BD65E96B240D_Kenya2002COGReport-web.pdf (‘the electoral process was credible, the conditions existed for a free expression of will by the electors and the results reflected the wishes of the people’).

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20 Clause 2 of the MOU, which governed the composition of government, provided: Hon Mwai Kibaki shall be nominated as the single Presidential candidate in the forthcoming general elections under the aegis of the National Rainbow Coalition and will serve as the President of the Republic of Kenya.

21 Electoral Commission of Kenya 2002 Presidential Election Results per Province, available at http://www.eck.or.ke/downloads/president2002.pdf.

22 See also ‘The broken MoU dealt the first blow to NARC’ The East African Standard 6 February 2002.

23 Ibid.

24 See, for instance, ‘The Big PM Question: when will Raila “tosha”?’ The East African Standard 10 August 2003.

25 See ‘Keriri tells why Kibaki trashed coalition's 2002 MoU’The East African Standard 11 September 2007. See also Mutua, M Kenya's Quest for Democracy: Taming Leviathan (Colorado: Lynee Reinner Publishers, 2008) p 196 Google Scholar (‘Kibaki reneged on the promise to appoint Odinga premier once he was ensconced at State House’).

26 ‘LDP boycott threat a sign of brewing trouble in coalition’ The East African Standard 30 January 2004.

27 Ibid.

28 Constitution, s 42.

29 Regulation 2 of the Presidential and Parliamentary Elections Regulations define polling station as ‘any room, place, vehicle or vessel set apart and equipped for the casting of votes by electors at an election’.

30 Ibid, reg 28.

31 Ibid, reg 31.

32 Ibid, reg 33.

33 Ibid, regs 35(1) and 35A.

34 Ibid.

35 Ibid, reg 40(3)(d).

36 Ibid, reg 35A(5)(a).

37 Ibid.

38 Ibid, reg 40.

39 Ibid.

40 Ibid, regs 40(1)(g)(ii) and 41(i).

41 See also Kenya Elections Domestic Observation Forum Preliminary Press Statement and Verdict of 2007 Kenya's General Elections p 2, available at http://www.iedafrica.org/documents/KEDOF-statement-31-12-07.pdf (Polling and counting at polling stations, in the 210 constituencies that they observed, was ‘peaceful’ and ‘orderly’); Kenya Human Rights Commission Violating the Vote: A Report of the 2007 General Elections, available at http://www.khrc.or.ke/documents/violating_the_vote.pdf also commended the ECK for its handling of the voting process (p 50); EU EOM, above n 17, p 2 (‘Voting was generally well administered’); International Republican Institute Kenya Presidential, Parliamentary and Local Elections December 2007 p 28, available at http://www.iri.org/africa/Kenya/pdfs/Kenya's%202007%20Presidental,%20Parliamentary%20and%20Local%20Elections.pdf (‘Election Day in Kenya was generally calm, organized and transparent’).

42 ‘Raila takes early lead’ The Standard 29 December 2007.

43 See also International Republican Institute, above n 41, p 29 (‘delays in announcing results from certain parts of the country, namely President Kibaki's strongholds in Central and upper Eastern Provinces’ caused anxiety).

44 ‘Kivuitu: I do not know where the retuning officers are’, footage available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JRiEiyjZYfs.

45 Commonwealth Observer Group Kenya General Election: 27 December 2007 p 27, available at http://www.thecommonwealth.org/shared_asp_files/GFSR.asp?NodeID=174448.

46 Above n 44.

47 See also Independent Review Commission Report on the Independent Review Commission on the General Elections held in Kenya on 27 December 2007 (Kriegler Commission) p 2, available at http://www.dialoguekenya.org/docs/FinalReport_consolidated.pdf (‘Televised utterances by Chairman Kivuitu only served to make matters worse’).

48 Above n 17, pp 33–35.

49 Above n 45, p 28.

50 See S Ndegwa and K K'Telwa ‘Kibaki declared winner, sworn in’ The Standard 30 December 2007.

51 Above n 44.

52 Ibid.

53 Ibid.

54 ‘Kabogo confirms rigging plot by Kenya government’, footage available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gm-tOP6pN-8.

55 Vide Gazette Notice No 12612 of 30 December 2007, according to s 5 of the Constitution.

56 See also EU EOM, above n 17, p 35 (‘At around 17:30 hours the ECK Chairman announced, behind closed doors..., the final presidential results and declared...Mwai Kibaki elected President. Less than half an hour later at around 18:00 hours [he] was sworn in’).

57 Source of data Electoral Commission of Kenya National Results, available at http://www.eck.or.ke/elections2007/index.php?view=article&catid=3%3APresidential&id=8%3Anational+Results&tmpl=component&print=1&page=&option=com_content&Itemid=8.

58 ‘Elections in Kenya: Kibaki sworn in, Odinga challenges’, footage available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dZzyIq0tiAA.

59 ‘ECK Chairman Kivuitu disowns published presidential election results’, footage available at http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=8055283257976311645.

60 Above n 47, p 115.

61 This situation is not unique to Kenya. Similar trends have been reported in other African states. See, eg, Oelbaum, J ‘Ethnicity adjusted? Economic reform, elections, and tribalism in Ghana's fourth republic’ (2004) 42 Commonwealth and Comparative Politics 242 CrossRefGoogle Scholar;

62 Office of the Government Spokesperson Election Results 2007, available at http://www.communication.go.ke/elections/default.asp.

63 Above n 41, p 33.

64 Commonwealth Observer Group, above n 45, p 28; EU EOM, above n 17, p 1; Kenya Elections Domestic Observation Forum, above n 41, p 5; International Republican Institute, above n 41, p 34. See also Statement of the Pan African Parliament Election Observer Mission to Kenya's General Election Held on the 27th December, 2007, available at http://appablog.wordpress.com/2008/01/24/statement-of-the-pan-african-parliament-election-observer-mission-to-kenya%e2%80%99s-general-election-held-on-the-27th-december-2007/ (‘the disputed election fell short of matching the democratic election process and the expression and the will of the people of Kenya’).

65 Electoral Commission of Kenya 27 December 2007 General Election: Presidential Election Results per Constituency, available at http://www.eck.or.ke/downloads/president200712.pdf.

66 ‘Election rigging: “A Matter of Life and Death” – Kwach’, footage available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ysn1VjEEvU.

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70 See also International Republican Institute, above n 41, p 33 (‘In parts of Nairobi, Nyanza, Rift Valley, Coast and Western provinces the main victims were people from Kikuyu, Embu and Meru tribes, and to a lesser extent Kisii communities, who were being targeted because of their perceived support for President Kibaki’).

71 ‘Death toll rises in Kenya’, footage available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ob9SPPO631Q.

72 ‘Post-election violence continuing across Kenya’, footage available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mJ7Hv4xjhUM (documenting violence that occurred in the PNU strong-holds of Naivasha and Nakuru).

73 Ibid.

74 ‘National Prayer Day’, footage available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wrfTbF1YgKg; ‘Pope Prays for Kenya’, available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y5NdkCuzwYk.

75 Ms Graca Mandela, a former first lady of Mozambique and South Africa, and Mr Benjamin Mkapa, a former president of Tanzania, assisted Dr Annan in the negotiation process.

76 On file with the author.

77 Section 15A(1).

78 Vide Gazette Notice No 1982 of 14 March 2008.

79 Vide Gazette Notice No 4473 of 23 May 2008.

80 Kriegler Commission, above n 47; Waki Commission, above n 7.

81 See Mohinder Gill v The Chief Election Commissioner (1978) 1 SCR 405 at 419 where the Indian Supreme Court (Iyer J) termed this right as ‘basic’. See also Wesberry v Sanders 376 US 1 (1964) at 17 where Justice Black of the US Supreme Court argued that the right to vote is ‘precious’.

82 Article 25.

83 GA Res 2106(XX), Annex, 20 UN GAOR Supp No 14 at 47, UN Doc A/6014 (1966), 660 UNTS 195 (entered into force 4 January 1969), Art 5(c).

84 GA Res 34/180, 34 UN GAOR Supp No 46 at 193, UN Doc A/34/46 (entered into force 3 September 1981), Art 7(a).

85 UN Doc A/61/611 (6 December 2006), 660 UNTS 195 (entered into force 12 May 2006), Art 29.

86 Article 25.

87 Article 13.

88 OAS Treaty Series No 36, 1144 UNTS 123 (entered into force 18 July 1978), Art 23.

89 Above n 8.

90 ‘General Comment 25: The Right to Participate in Public Affairs, Voting Rights and the Right of Equal Access to Public Service’ CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.7 (12 August 1996) para 2.

91 Barkan, J and Okumu, J “Semi-competitive” elections, clientelism and political recruitment in a no-party state: the Kenyan experience’ in Hemet, G, Rose, R and Rouquie, A (eds) Elections without Choice (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1978) pp 88–107 CrossRefGoogle Scholar at p 106.

92 International Commission of Jurists Kenya Election 1997: Free and Fair? (Nairobi: International Commission of Jurists, 1997) p 26.Google Scholar

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94 CRPD, Art 21; ICCPR, Art 19; UDHR, Art 19.

95 UDHR, Art 21(1); ICCPR, Art 25(a); CRPD, Art 29(a); CEFRD, Art 5(c).

96 UN Human Rights Committee, above n 90, para 6.

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120 Article 6.

121 GA Res 44/25 of 20 November 1989, 1577 UNTS 3 (entered into force 2 September 1990), Art 6.

122 Article 10.

123 Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (also called the European Convention for Human Rights), 213 UNTS 222 (entered into force 3 September 1953) (ECHR), Art 2; African (Banjul) Charter on Human and People's Rights adopted June 27, 1981, OAU Doc CAB/LEG/67/3 rev 5 (entered into force 21 October 1986) (Banjul Charter), Art 4.

124 Constitution of Afghanistan 2004, Art 23; Constitution of Belarus 1994, Art 24; Constitution of Lesotho 1993, Art 5.

125 See, for instance, Massera v Uruguay Human Rights Committee, UN Doc A/34/40 (15 August 1979), paras 9 and 10; Luyeye v Zaire Human Rights Committee, UN Doc A/38/40 (21 July 1983), para 8.

126 See, eg, CESCR, Concluding observations on Sri Lanka, UN Doc E/1999/22 (1999), para 69; CRC, General Comment No 3: HIV/AIDS and the Rights of the Child (2003), UN Doc CRC/GC/2003/3, 17 March 2003, para 5.

127 Convention Against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment, UNGA Res 39/46 of 10 December 1984, 1465 UNTS 85 (entered into force 26 June 1987), preamble; CRPD, Srt 14.

128 Banjul Charter, Arts 6 and 23.

129 Kenyan Constitution, s 70.

130 Exodus 20:13 (King James).

131 Available at http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Us_declaration_independence.jpg.

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136 UNTS, vol 1155, p331 (entered into force 27 January 1980).

137 Article 26.

138 CRPD, Art 10; ICCPR, Art 2(1). See also Stewart v United Kingdom (1985) 7 EHRR 453 at 457 (European states are required ‘not only to refrain from taking life “intentionally” but, further, to take appropriate steps to safeguard’ this right).

139 Section 14.

140 Panter-Brick, K Prospects for democracy in Zambia’ (1994) 29 Government and Opposition 231 CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 231.

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143 The Holy Bible Numbers 35:6–34.

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146 ‘Kenya church massacre’, footage available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WJ92W74knSg.

147 Above n 7, p 46.

148 ‘15 burnt as Naivasha erupts’, footage available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H4iCaVq9iLs.

149 ‘Kenya: Bernard, a survivor story’, footage available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7433852.stm.

150 Above n 99, p 162.

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152 Section 71.

153 Article 2(2).

154 Kenyan Constitution, s 71(2).

155 Adopted by United Nations General Assembly Resolution 34/169 (17 December 1979), Art 3.

156 Adopted by United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, Havana, Cuba (27 August to 7 September 1979), Principle 9.

157 Kenyan Constitution, s 71(2).

158 Ibid.

159 Court of Appeal of Kenya at Nairobi, Civil Suit 92 of 2000 (delivered 13 July 2006) (unreported) at 4.

160 Hamilton, A, Madison, J and Jay, J [Ball, T (ed)]The Federalist with The Letters of ‘Brutus’ (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) p 128 Google Scholar (per Hamilton).

161 UN Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials, Principal 2; ECHR, Art 2(2).

162 ‘Outrage over police killings in Kisumu’, footage available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TfeD5mnLbBI.

163 At p 460.

164 At p 453.

165 At p 460.

166 Above n 7, p 157.

167 Ibid, p 387.

168 See Gullid Abadi v The Attorney General High Court of Kenya at Meru, Civil Case Number 122 of 2002 (delivered 27 November 2006) (unreported) at 10.

169 ICCPR, Art 6.

170 Section 71.

171 Ballots or Bullets: Organized Political Violence and Kenya's Crisis of Governance, p 26 (footnotes omitted), available at http://www.hrw.org/reports/2008/kenya0308/kenya0308web.pdf.

172 Above n 7, p 56.

173 Translation by author.

174 Waki Commission, above n 7, pp 187 and 189.

175 Above n 171.

176 Above n 7, pp 311 and 312–313.

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183 High Court of Kenya at Nakuru Civil Suit 92 of 2000 (delivered 13 July 2006) (Kimaru J) (unreported).

184 Njuguna, above n 159, at 1–2; Gichii, above n 183, at 1–3.

185 (1998) 25 EHRR 491 at 551–552.

186 (1996) 21 EHRR 97 at 160–161.

187 Njuguna, above n 159, at 5–6; Gichii, above n 183, at 4–5.

188 McCann, above n 186, at 186–187; Andronicou, above n 185–186, at 554–555.

189 Section 26 of the Kenyan Constitution gives the Attorney-General power to institute criminal proceedings in respect of any alleged offence.

190 Court of Appeal of Kenya at Nairobi, Criminal Appeal 260 of 2005 (delivered 15 December 2006) (O'Kubasu, Waki and Otieno JJ) (unreported).

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193 Above n 99, p 105.

194 Section 241.

195 Burroughs v US 290 US 534 (1934) at 545.

196 Ali Omar v The Electoral Commission of Kenya HC Election Petition No 1 of 2003 (delivered 27 October 2006) (O'Kubasu, Otieno and Deverell JJ) (unreported) at 5 (‘peace and future of the nation depends to a very large extent on the stability and certainty of its electoral process’).

197 SMT Indira Ghandi v Shri Narain (1976) 2 SCR 347 at 658 (per Chandrachud J).

198 Ibid.

199 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 1966) (entered into force 3 January 1976) (ICESCR), Art 1.

200 Banjul Charter, Art 22(1).

201 ICESCR, Art 2(1); Banjul Charter, Art 22(2).

202 Done at Arusha on 2 March 2004.

203 Ibid, Preamble. See also Art 3, which sets out the objectives of the Customs Union.

204 Done at Arusha on 30 November 1999.

205 See especially Arts 5 and 6.

206 Ghai, Y Reflections on law and economic integration in East Kenya’ (1976) 36 Scandinavian Institute of African Studies 35 Google Scholar at 44.

207 Article 28.

208 Montesquieu, C The Spirit of Laws (New York: Prometheus Books, 2002) p 316.Google Scholar

209 See Preamble to the African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Good Governance adopted at the Eightieth Ordinary Session of the Assembly held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (30 January 2007).

210 See UN Security Council Resolution 1831 (2008) (adopted at its 5957th meeting on 19 August 2008).

211 See also A Oluoch ‘The slow puncture deflating wheels of robust economy’ The Standard 6 January 2008.

212 UDHR, Art 25.

213 F Kwera ‘Fuel shortage starts to bite’ The Standard 3 January 2008.

214 International Monetary Fund Statement by IMF Staff Mission to Uganda, available at http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2008/pr0858.htm.

215 Joint Statement by the African Development Bank and The World Bank on the Situation in Kenya, available at http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/EXTPROGRAMS/EXTTRADERESEARCH/0,contentMDK:21618245~menuPK:162686~pagePK:210083~piPK:152538~theSitePK:544849,00.html.

216 N'Diaye, B, Saine, A and Houngnikpo, M Not Yet Democracy: West Africa's Slow Farewell to Authoritarianism (North Carolina: Carolina Academic Press, 2005) p 103.Google Scholar

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218 Banjul Charter, Art 12(3).

219 For an analysis of the evolution of Kenya's refugee protection regime, see Odhiambo Abuya, E Past reflections, future insights: African asylum law and policy in historical perspective’ (2007) 19 International Journal of Refugee Law 51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

220 US Committee for Refugees World Refugee Survey 2007, available at http://www.refugees.org/countryreports.aspx?id=2151.

221 28 July 1951, 189 UNTS 137 (entered into force 22 April 1954) (Refugee Convention).

222 31 January 1967, 606 UNTS 267 (entered into force 4 October 1967).

223 Adopted by the Assembly of Heads of State and Government at its Sixth Ordinary Session (Addis Ababa, 10 September 1969) (entered into force 20 June 1974) (OAU Refugee Convention).

224 Article 2(1).

225 See K Zaat The Protection of Forced Migrants in Islamic Law pp 6–7, available at http://www.unhcr.org/research/RESEARCH/476652cb2.pdf (last accessed 7 June 2008).

226 RM v Attorney General High Court of Kenya at Nairobi, Civil Case 1351 of 2002 (delivered 1 December 2006) (Nyamu and Ibrahim JJ) (unreported) at 9 (an international instrument ‘does not automatically become Municipal law unless by virtue of ratification’).

227 US Committee for Refugees, above n 220.

228 UNHCR Backlog at Kenyan Customs Affects UNHCR Missions, available at http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/southsudan?page=news&id=47b467a94.

229 UNHCR Global Report 2007, p 197, available at http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/4848fc472.pdf (the Kenyan crisis ‘momentarily disrupted the supply of goods and fuel needed for the return operation to Southern Sudan’).

230 Daley, P Challenges to peace: conflict resolution in the Great Lakes Region of Africa 27 (2006) Third World Quarterly 303 CrossRefGoogle Scholar;

231 Signed at San Francisco on 26 June 1945 (entry into force 24 October 1945).

232 Done at Lome on 11 July 2000.

233 Original emphasis.

234 General Comment No 6: The Right to Life (30 April 1982), para 2.

235 Ibid.

236 Above n 1.

237 ‘Annan delays Kenya trip’, footage available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jqayrz_fn84.

238 D Onyango ‘Is Dr. Mutua a man in denial?’ The Standard 13 January 2008.

239 See, for instance, ibid.

240 See also D Ohito ‘Talks collapse as Kuffor jets out’ The Standard 11 January 2008.

241 P Wachira ‘Kibaki names new cabinet?’ The Standard 12 June 2008.

242 ‘Tears, anxiety as IDPs arrive home’ The Standard 6 May 2008.

243 Swahili adage, which means no worries (translation by author).

244 UDHR, Art 13; ICCPR, Art 12(4).

245 Refugee Convention, Art 1; OAU Refugee Convention, Art 5.

246 Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, UN doc E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2 of 11 February 1998, s 5.

247 Odhiambo Abuya, E From here to where? protracted refugee situations in Africa’ in Edwards, A and Ferstman, C (eds) Human Security and Non-Citizens in the New Global Order (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008)Google Scholar (forthcoming).

248 ‘Picking up the pieces’, footage available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lGmXnmCB4tY.

249 The Preamble to the Agreement on the Principles of Partnership of the Coalition Government also recognises that, if the ‘deep-seated and long-standing divisions within the Kenyan society’ are not addressed, they could ‘threaten the very existence of Kenya’.

250 Above n 1.

251 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court done in Rome 17 July 1998 (entered into force 1 July 2002) arts 5–8.

252 The Fund for Peace Failed States Index 2008, available at http://www.fundforpeace.org/web/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=99&Itemid=140.

253 Thorpe, D and Hornsby, C Multi-Party Politics in Kenya (Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers, 1998) p 414.Google Scholar

254 313 US 299 (1941).

255 Ibid, at 329.

256 Dicey, AV Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (London: Macmillan, 1959) p 202.Google Scholar

257 Kenya, for instance, has had a long experience with elections. See Engholm, GF African elections in Kenya, March 1957’ in MacKenzie, Wjm and Robinson, K (eds) Five elections in Africa: A Group of Electoral Studies (New York: Clarendon University Press, 1960) pp 391–461 Google Scholar;