The starfish Pharia pyramidatus is a tropical species of high ecological importance, mainly because of its role as generalist predator. Nevertheless, there are no studies about its reproduction. This study analysed the reproductive biology of P. pyramidatus based on monthly time-series samples from April 2008 to March 2009 at Isla Montosa in the Mexican tropical Pacific. The gonad index (GI), and pyloric caecum index (PCI) were determined and the results were corroborated by histological examination of the gonads. Pharia pyramidatus is a gonochoric asteroid and the ratio of males to females was not significantly different throughout the year. Gametogenesis showed high synchrony among males and females and five stages were recognized for both sexes. Spawning occurred from July to September. Maximum oocyte size was ~150 μm and mean fecundity was 7.3 ± 1.2 millions of oocytes per female. GI and PCI showed seasonal variations and an inverse relationship from May to August. Sea-bottom temperature and photoperiod showed a direct relationship with GI, and apparently constitute the proximate causes of the seasonal reproductive pattern observed in P. pyramidatus, while the highly seasonal rainfall and strong upwelling probably act as ultimate causes.

1. Young angler-fishes have been kept alive and in health for periods varying from a few weeks to eleven months. They were sometimes hand-fed on dead fishes and sometimes allowed to catch living prey. They grew at an average rate of about eight and a half inches per annum. All had strongly marked individual characters.

2. With pelvic and pectoral fins a slight hollow is made in the sand into which the angler settles itself. Its upper surface is now flush with the ground, and the colour and colour mottlings are closely matched to the surroundings. The bordering tags of skin break up the outline.

3. Breathing movements occur at relatively long intervals. The expiratory currents are discharged in the axils between the pectoral fins and the trunk, and are deflected vertically upwards.

Barnacle encrustation negatively influenced every aspect of swimming in the scallop Chlamys hastata measured in this study. Scallops swam significantly longer, travelled further and attained greater elevation once epibiotic barnacles had been removed. Shell morphometry of barnacle-encrusted scallops was similar to shells of unencrusted scallops. Specifically, shell length was positively allometric with shell height and shell mass was negatively allometric. However, adductor muscle mass scaled isometrically to shell height, in contrast to unencrusted scallops. In the laboratory, the drag coefficient (Cd) of barnacle-encrusted scallops decreased after barnacle removal, in contrast to sponge-encrusted scallops in which no decrease in Cd was detected when the sponge was removed from the scallop's valves. Furthermore, scallops swimming with barnacle encrustation required more energy than did unencrusted scallops. Although there was no significant difference in aerobic energy expenditure between swimming barnacle-encrusted and unencrusted scallops, differences in anaerobic energy expenditure were detected. Specifically, barnacle-encrusted scallops required more arginine phosphate than unencrusted scallops to swim to exhaustion although octopine levels were similar. Thus, barnacle encrustation dramatically decreased a scallop's ability to swim, partly by increasing the drag coefficient experienced by the scallop and the energy required for swimming.

The proportion of life history phases in red seaweeds is an important descriptor of population structure. This paper describes the relative abundance of gametophytes and tetrasporophytes of Mazzaella oregona (Rhodophyta: Gigartinales; formerly M. heterocarpa), focusing particularly on the effects of wave exposure on the proportion of both life history phases. In two different rocky points in Barkley Sound (Pacific Canada), gametophytes were, in proportion to tetrasporophytes, relatively more abundant under low wave exposure than under high wave exposure in July 2002, during the period of highest abundance for this species. The inverse relationship between the G:T ratio and the degree of wave exposure also occurs for local M. splendens, but not for local M. parksii. Differences in frond size and population density between these three sympatric species are related to the effects of wave exposure on their G:T ratio.

Fungal emerging pathogens are one of the main threats for global biodiversity. Sea turtles do not seem to be an exemption, and recent studies on important nesting areas worldwide have shown that two fungal pathogens, i.e. Fusarium falciforme and Fusarium keratoplasticum, are involved in low hatching success in nests of sea turtle species. Although the presence of these pathogens has been detected in Ascension Island, there are no investigations on the distribution of these two pathogens in main nesting beaches in the island. In this study, we analysed 109 eggshells of the species Chelonia mydas from four nesting areas in Ascension Island. We have isolated and identified a total of 46 fungal isolates. A phylogenetic analysis, of the ITS nrDNA region, with a number of reference sequences of the Fusarium solani species complex, showed that 23 of these isolates corresponded to the pathogen F. keratoplasticum. The analyses on isolation frequency, that included other previously obtained isolates, i.e. 11 F. keratoplasticum and one F. falciforme, showed that F. keratoplasticum was the species most frequently isolated in Ascension Island and it was found in all nesting beaches, while F. falciforme was only isolated from Pan Am beach. When compared with other nesting areas worldwide, the abundance of F. keratoplasticum over F. falciforme was higher than any other nesting region tested. These findings are important in order to evaluate the potential threat of this pathogen to nests of the sea turtle population of Ascension Island, and to develop future control strategies.

The understanding of the stock structure of a species is essential to effectively manage fisheries. Otolith shape analysis has been successfully applied in stock identification using the elliptic Fourier analysis. This method was used to assess possible differences in the otolith shape of Helicolenus dactylopterus caught around the Azores, Madeira and mainland Portugal. A total of 294 individuals ranging from 23 to 29 cm in total length, equally distributed by sex and area, were analysed. The multivariate analysis of variance performed on the otolith normalized elliptic Fourier descriptors (NEFDs) revealed significant differences for both area and sex, but no interaction was found between the two factors. In the canonical discriminant analysis an overall classification success of 69.4% and 66.7% was achieved for females and males respectively. These results suggest the usefulness of otolith shape analysis for stock differentiation of bluemouth from Portuguese waters.

The coexistence of three taxa of Codium (Chlorophyta: Codiaceae) was examined on wave-swept shores of western Ireland: the introduced macroalgae Codium fragile ssp. atlanticum and ssp. tomentosoides and the native Codium tomentosum. In spring 1999 and 2000, four sites were monitored to evaluate whether past predictions regarding temporal changes and species replacement occurred. Introduced and native species of dichotomously branching Codium occurred at four tidal levels: in tidepools in (i) the upper barnacle zone; (ii) the mid barnacle/fucoid zone; (iii) the mussel zone, and (iv) on emergent substrata in the red algal turf/kelp zone. Codium fragile ssp. atlanticum and ssp. tomentosoides grew together in 11·9% of surveyed pools containing Codium. Compared to 1971 censuses, C. fragile ssp. atlanticum had increased in relative abundance at all tidal levels, and the dominance of C. fragile ssp. tomentosoides had declined. The native C. tomentosum constituted the same percentage of the population as it did in 1971. Pool availability and primary rock surfaces were not limiting at most sites, indicating that inter-subspecific and inter-specific competition could not account for temporal changes in Codium distribution on Irish shores. Ecological constraints other than intra-generic competition may have contributed to the purported long-term changes in Codium abundance.

Terebellides stroemii Sars, 1835, the type species of the genus, was originally described from the south-west coast of Norway. Over the past 170 plus years this species has been reported from around the world often without a detailed description; in some cases, schematic illustrations of the anterior end with the distinctive branchiae were given. Identifications were likely based mainly on the branchiae consisting of 4–5 lobes but recent work has shown that this character alone has led to misidentifications and confusion of a number of morphologically similar species. Michael Sars (1835) did not designate type specimens for this species. In order to provide an accurate definition of the genus it is necessary to redescribe and characterize the type species including the designation of a neotype. This will provide a baseline against which the potentially undescribed sibling species in the area can be compared and fully described. A large collection of specimens identified as T. stroemii from locations along the coasts of Norway was studied in the Natural History Museum, University of Oslo. This has prompted us to locate material collected by M. Sars (1835) from the vicinity of the type locality and to designate a neotype and provide a comprehensive description of the type species of the genus.

Three species of microgastropods, Eatoniella atropurpurea, Eatonina rubrilabiata and Amphithalamus incidata, are common in various habitats at mid to low levels on intertidal shores in New South Wales, Australia. These habitats include patches of sediment, pebbles and algal turf. These species are very patchy, varying in abundance within and among habitats at scales of centimetres to many metres. This study describes laboratory experiments which tested hypotheses about differences in mortality and growth rates for each species in three different habitats: sediment, pebbles and coralline turf. There was greater mortality in coralline turf without sediment for E. rubrilabiata and A. incidata, whereas Eatoniella atropurpurea showed a greater mortality in sediment. Moreover, Eatonina rubrilabiata had a faster rate of growth in sediment, whereas Eatoniella atropurpurea grew more rapidly in coralline turf. The different rates of mortality and growth for these species in different habitats provide mechanisms which may partially explain the patterns of abundance in the field.

The colonization dynamics in trophic-functional structure of biofilm-dwelling ciliate fauna were studied using two methods based on an artificial substratum in Korean coastal waters of the Yellow Sea during April 2007. Polyurethane foam enveloped slide (PFES) and conventional slide (CS) systems were used to collect ciliate samples at a depth of 1 m. The ciliate fauna represented similar colonization dynamics in trophic-functional patterns that were driven mainly by the algivores, bacterivores and non-selectives in both systems. Simple trophic-functional patterns (e.g. algivores and non-selectives) occurred within the ciliate fauna at the initial stage (1–3 days), while complex patterns (e.g. algivores, non-selectives and bacterivores) were established at the transitional (5–7 days) and equilibrium (9–19 days) stages. However, the time in which ciliate fauna reached a stable trophic-functional pattern was shorter in the PFES than in the CS system. Among four trophic-functional types, the algivores and bacterivores significantly fitted the MacArthur-Wilson and logistic models in colonization and growth curves in both systems, respectively. Furthermore, the species richness and diversity of algivores and bacterivores were significantly higher in the PFES system than in the CS. These results suggest that the PFES system was more effective than the conventional slide method for a colonization survey on trophic-functional patterns of biofilm-dwelling ciliate fauna in marine ecosystems.

Península Valdés (PV) is the most austral calving ground for the SW Atlantic population of Eubalaena australis. Recent studies indicate that E. australis often feeds in PV mainly in late September and October. A microscopic analysis of food chitin remains found in five whale faeces was performed in the present study in an attempt to obtain baseline knowledge about trophic ecology and degree of use of plankton food available for whales in PV during spring (September–December). The remains in faeces from stranded and live individuals included copepods, other zooplankton and centric diatoms, all of which were characterized. Copepod remains were found to be dominant. Scanning electron and confocal laser scanning microscopes were used for comparative analyses between the mandibular gnathobases found in whale faeces and those obtained from preserved specimens. Mandibular gnathobases were the same in structure and morphometry as those obtained from preserved Calanus australis (copepodites 4–6). The positive relationship observed between the total length and width of the mandibular gnathobases edge of C. australis and those found in faeces allowed us to infer the developmental stages of the copepods ingested by E. australis. Our results indicate – for the first time – the relevant role of C. australis copepodite 5 as main prey for E. australis in PV during the calving season. Copepodite 5 of C. australis accumulates energy-rich lipids. This is energetically attractive for whales and it is the potential reason why E. australis feeds mainly on dense patches dominated by this developmental stage of C. australis.

Polymorphism may allow individuals to expand habitat use through morph-specific resource demands. However, the underlying mechanisms maintaining different morphotypes in nature are difficult to identify. We sampled populations of the shrimp Hippolyte obliquimanus in the macroalgae Sargassum furcatum and Galaxaura marginata to examine morph-specific distribution patterns, population structure and female reproductive output, as an initial step to understand polymorphism in this species. Two main colour morphotypes were identified: homogeneous shrimps (H), which change their colour, mostly from pink to greenish-brown tones, and striped translucent shrimps (ST), whose colour remain unaltered. Distribution of individuals between habitats was clearly morph-specific. H shrimps occupied colour-matching substrates, mainly Sargassum, where they can attain large densities, and ST individuals were evenly distributed in both algae. Brood production and size-fecundity relationships were similar between morphs and habitats, suggesting these are relatively fixed traits in the population. However, sex proportions, defined as the male to female ratio, were different between morphs and macroalgae. H shrimps were chiefly females (1:2.04) and ST shrimps mostly males (1:0.30). Given the likely polygynic pure-search mating system in H. obliquimanus, the female-biased sex ratio observed in Sargassum is apparently more advantageous than the Mendelian proportion found in Galaxaura habitat. Clustering on vegetated habitat, the female-biased H morph may be relatively cryptic and sedentary, compared with the male-biased ST morph which apparently combines a more neutral camouflage strategy to a generalized habitat use. Altogether, results suggest that selection for sex-specific traits favours the maintenance of polymorphism in H. obliquimanus.

The aim of this study was to assess if sea surface temperature does affect cetacean distribution in the western Ligurian Sea. Relationships with temperature were investigated for: striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba), fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) and sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus). Remotely sensed sea surface temperature (SST) data were studied. A series of 20 monthly images (i.e. June to September monthly images from 1996 to 2000) was considered. Concurrently, distribution data collected during shipboard summer surveys, and covering an area of about 20,000 km2 in the western Ligurian Sea, were analysed. The relationship between the three species presence and SST was investigated by using a grid of 3 × 3 nautical mile cell units. For every cell the SST mean, standard deviation, coefficient of variance and the deviation from the monthly average were calculated. Finally, binary logistic regression functions allowed to assess significant (P < 0.05) relationships with temperature in these species. These logistic models, were able to predict 60–78% of the species presence(1)/absence(0) cells, and suggest the need for further investigations spanning longer time periods to assess how the global climate change has been changing and will change in the future cetacean distribution in the western Ligurian Sea.

The phylogenetic relationships within the family Spongicolidae were examined based on a cladistic analysis of 38 adult morphological characters with reference to two outgroup species of the family Stenopodidae. The strict consensus tree identified Microprosthema as the most basal genus, followed by Paraspongicola, Spongicola and the remaining genera. The Spongicoloides represents the most derived genus among spongicolids. The genera Spongicola, Spongicoloides and Spongiocaris should be redefined, because they formed paraphyletic clades. The cladogram indicates that symbiosis with the hexactinellid sponges is coincident with the loss of gills, exopods on maxillipeds 2 and 3, and with the loss of spination on carapace, pereopods, abdomen, tail fan etc. These losses in the spongicolids are thought to be secondarily derived in relation to their sponge-associated habitat.

The Mediterranean fan worm, Sabella spallanzanii (Gmelin, 1791), is a highly invasive pest species introduced to Australia and New Zealand, with the ability to alter marine ecosystems by outcompeting native species for food and space. Sabella spallanzanii has been established in southern Australia for decades, but was discovered in Botany Bay (NSW, eastern Australia) in 2013. In New Zealand, S. spallanzanii was first detected in March 2008. Using cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) sequences, we investigate the phylogeography of the Australian and New Zealand populations of S. spallanzanii, including the possible origins of the recent incursions in both countries. Australian and New Zealand S. spallanzanii show minimal genetic diversity (0.2% divergence) and were dominated by two main haplotypes suggesting a commonality. Our molecular data are insufficient by themselves to identify fine-scale invasion pathways in antipodean S. spallanzanii, but the similar, minimal haplotype diversity in combination with well-constrained field survey data suggests that the New Zealand incursion originated from southern Australia, rather than as a new incursion from the Mediterranean Sea. This highlights the importance of ongoing marine biosecurity surveillance and monitoring as well as improvements to biosecurity protocols for international and domestic vessels. The origin of the eastern Australian (Botany Bay) incursion is plausibly derived from either southern Australia or as a ‘return’ from New Zealand, and requires further, more detailed investigation.

Assessing the sensitivity of ectotherms to variability in their environment is a key challenge, especially in the face of rapid warming of the Earth's surface. Comparing the upper temperature limits of species from different regions, at different rates of warming, has recently been developed as a method to estimate the long term sensitivity of shallow marine fauna. This paper presents the first preliminary data from four tropical Ascension Island, five temperate New Zealand and six Antarctic McMurdo Sound species. The slopes and intercepts of these three assemblages fitted within the overall pattern for previously measured assemblages from high temperature tolerance in tropical fauna and a shallow slope, to low temperature tolerance and a steep slope in Antarctic fauna. Despite the tropical oceanic Ascension Island being subject to upwelling events, the fit of the intercept and slope within the overall assemblage pattern suggests that the upwelling is sufficiently predictable for the fauna to have evolved the plasticity to respond. This contrasts with previously analysed species from the Peruvian upwelling region, which had a steeper slope than other temperate fauna. The speed and capacity of faunal assemblages to acclimatize their physiology is likely to determine the shape of the rates of warming relationship, and will be a key mechanism underpinning vulnerability to climate warming.

Spatial variation in the structure of macrobenthic assemblages on intertidal flats is known to be related to different environmental variables. Most of the studies have observed that along the estuarine gradient, salinity is the most important variable driving the patterns of the macrobenthic assemblages. However, the great majority of studies have been done on single estuarine systems in temperate regions. We investigated the relationship between the macrobenthic assemblages in intertidal habitats and the environmental variables along three tropical estuaries. From lower to upper estuarine regions we sampled benthic macrofauna, salinity and sediments. The structure of the benthic assemblages was primarily related to salinity. There was a decrease in the number of taxa from the upper to the lower estuarine regions, indicating important deviation from Remane's model of estuarine diversity. There were important similarities of taxa abundance along different estuarine salinity gradients which can be properly tested in other tropical and temperate regions. We advocate that in order to adopt general and robust management practices it is essential to identify broad patterns and general rules governing estuarine systems.

The 37 sq. miles of intertidal banks in the Mersey Estuary have been surveyed and classified according to their nature and fauna.

Half the banks occur in the Outer and half in the Upper Estuary. Four-fifths of the total area is composed of sand and most of the remaining one-fifth of mud occurs in the Upper Estuary.

The burrowing fauna of the Outer Estuary is abundant and varied; that of the Upper Estuary is abundant but not varied.

The distribution of species in the Mersey Estuary is similar to that in the estuaries of the River Tees and Tay, except that in the Mersey Estuary a sudden drop in the numbers of species occurs at Rock Light. This is attributed o t the strong tidal streams in the Narrows.

The densely inhabited banks of the Upper Estuary are mainly composed of mud and are situated high in the shore zone. In the Outer Estuary the densely inhabited banks are of muddy sand with some banks of mud and are situated near the low-water mark in sheltered positions.

The burrowing species of the Upper Estuary also occur, with many others, in the Outer Estuary.

The observations described in this paper were made during an investigation of the estuary of the River Mersey by the Water Pollution Board of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the results are published by permission of the Department.

The size of the cephalothorax in Stage IV, Stage V, and Stage VI Calanus has been measured during the year 1931–1932 at three stations in the Clyde Sea-Area.

In general the size was greatest when the water temperature was low, and least when it was high, but besides this there was a series of increases and decreases in size which were apparently connected with the breeding periods. The Calanus produced at the beginning of a breeding period were large (at Station I) and those produced at the end were small (at Stations I and II). The greatest production of eggs usually occurred when the female Calanus were of small size.

During the autumn of 1931 the Stage V Calanus from Station IV (upper Loch Fyne) were considerably larger than those from the rest of the area, but this distinction had been lost by the autumn of 1931.

Stages IV and V Calanus taken in the top 30 m. were almost invariably smaller than those from deeper water.

The Calanus show a very wide range of sizes, the range for Stage V overlapping those for both male and female. Possible causes of this are discussed.

Echinus esculentus, the larger common sea-urchin, occurs in the British Isles between tide-marks on rocky shores at about low-water spring-tide level in the localities given in Table I, page 292. It is, however, absent from apparently suitable foreshores in the Plymouth district, for reasons which are discussed in the present paper. Chadwick (1) states that “In Port Erin Bay it may be collected by hand on the beach, and on the ruined breakwater at low water of spring tides.” Elmhirst (2) records that “In this district (Millport) E. esculentus occurs abundantly between tide-marks in spring and early summer on rocky coasts; a few may be found at almost any other season. About February or early March a shoreward migration seems to set in, so that in suitable weather conditions some hundreds may be collected at springs between April and June. Then their abundance decreases until about November,from when until January it is at a minimum.”