Scale microfossils are locally abundant in rocks of the uppermost Tindir Group and basal beds of the overlying Funnel Creek Limestone in northwest Canada. Co-occurring organic-walled fossils in this microbial mat biota resemble forms described from the Upper Proterozoic but mineralized spicules of Cambrian aspect are also present. The fossils occur in chert nodules or beds in flat laminated limestones interpreted to represent accumulation in a subtidal environment.

The scale microfossils are of three basic shapes: Group 1, simple imperforate scales; Group 2, thin disk-like scales with prominent, regularly arranged pores; Group 3, ring-like scales with distinct three dimensional morphology. All taxa in Groups 1 and 2 have scales of a single morphology and narrow size range; Group 3 taxa may contain one, two, or (?)three morphotypes and sizes of scales. The scales of Group 1 taxa are not closely comparable to known Chromophyta but are similar to scales of several modern Rhizopoda. Some of the Group 2 taxa can be compared to members of the Chrysophyta, whereas others have general resemblance to centric diatom valves. Most Group 3 taxa are morphologically comparable to members of the Prymnesiophyta. All scales that could be analyzed petrographically are now siliceous and none could be confirmed as polycrystalline.

The scale microfossils are referred to new taxa, including 17 genera, 26 species, and 6 varieties. Newly described taxa are: Group 1) Archeoxybaphon polykeramoides n. gen., n. sp., Archeoxybaphon diminutum n. sp., Archeoxybaphon amydrum n. sp., Hyaloxybaphon monokeramoides n. gen., n. sp.; Group 2) Paleohexadictyon litosum n. gen., n. sp., Paleohexadictyon myriotrematum n. sp., Paleohexadictyon coroniforme n. sp., Paleohexadictyon coroniforme var. tetragonum n. var., Paleohexadictyon coroniforme var. delicatum n. var., Chilodictyon caliporum n. gen., n. sp., Chilodictyon caliporum var. striatimarginatum n. var., Chilodictyon myriocanthum n. sp., Characodictyon skolopium n. gen., n. sp., Characodictyon skolopium var. tetragonum n. var., Characodictyon skolopium var. soleniscum n. var., Characodictyon diskolopium n. sp., Characodictyon diskolopium var. circulare n. var., Radiocerniculum inornatum n. gen., n. sp., Spinicerniculum tribulosum n. gen., n. sp.; Group 3) Petasisquama alta n. gen., n. sp., Petasisquama versicorona n. sp., Petasisquama laciniata n. sp., Bicorniculum brochum n. gen., n. sp., Confinisquama fimbriata n. gen., n. sp., Aqualisquama centritubula n. gen., n. sp., Invaginatibalteus dimorphus n. gen., n. sp., Invaginatibalteus depressus n. sp., Paterisquama crassa n. gen., n. sp., Altarmilla multistriata n. gen., n. sp., Patinisquama cirratomarginata n. gen., n. sp., Paleocrassalimbus spinosus n. gen., n. sp., and Paleomegasquama coccolithoides n. gen., n. sp.

Trilobites from the Lower Cambrian succession at Angorichina in the eastern Flinders Ranges, South Australia, are described. Silicified material from the Mernmerna Formation reveals the presence of a new assemblage from the Pararaia bunyerooensis Zone, including the eponymous species, Yorkella aff. australis, Eoredlichia sp., Redlichia sp., and the new species Wutingaspis euryoptilos and Yunnanocephalus macromelos. Trilobites of the Pararaia bunyerooensis Zone show a strong affinity with those from the Yu'anshan Member of the Heilinpu Formation in Chengjiang and Jinning Counties, Yunnan Province, southwest China. the Pararaia bunyerooensis Zone is correlated with the Yunnanocephalus Assemblage subzone (upper Eoredlichia–Wutingaspis Zone) of the Chiungchussuan (=Qiongzhusian) Stage of China. Additional trilobites from Angorichina include Elicicola calva from the Wilkawillina Limestone, Estaingia occipitospina (Jell) new combination from the Oraparinna Shale, and Redlichia guizhouensis Zhou from the Wirrealpa Limestone. Australian Early Cambrian trilobite biozonation is reviewed, with discussion of distinct assemblages within the Pararaia janeae Zone that have the potential for zonal subdivision, and evidence to support the placement of the northern Australian Ordian/Early Templetonian Stage within the late Early Cambrian.

A possible paedomorphic lineage between Pararaia bunyerooensis and P. janeae is proposed. Adult specimens of P. janeae retain juvenile characteristics of the progenitor P. bunyerooensis. Retardation in onset of maturity in P. janeae resulted in the attainment of a larger adult size than in P. bunyerooensis, indicating the former species evolved via neoteny.

Impressions of soft-bodied Ediacaran megafossils are common in deep-water slope deposits of the June beds at Sekwi Brook in the Mackenzie Mountains of NW Canada. Two taphonomic assemblages can be recognized. Soles of turbidite beds contain numerous impressions of simple (Aspidella) and tentaculate (Hiemalora, Eoporpita) discs. A specimen of the frond Primocandelabrum is attached to an Aspidella-like holdfast, but most holdfast discs lack any impressions of the leafy fronds to which they were attached, reflecting Fermeuse-style preservation of the basal level of the community. Epifaunal fronds (Beothukis, Charnia, Charniodiscus) and benthic recliners (Fractofusus) were most commonly preserved intrastratally on horizontal parting surfaces within turbidite and contourite beds, reflecting a deep-water example of Nama-style preservation of higher levels in the community. A well-preserved specimen of Namalia significantly extends the known age and environmental range of erniettomorphs into deep-water aphotic settings. Infaunal bilaterian burrows are absent from the June beds despite favorable beds for their preservation. The June beds assemblage is broadly similar in age and environment to deep-water Avalonian assemblages in Newfoundland and England, and like them contains mainly rangeomorph and arboreomorph fossils and apparently lacks dickinsoniomorphs and other clades typical of younger and shallower Ediacaran assemblages. Fossil data presently available imply that the classically deep- and shallow-water taxa of the Ediacara biota had different evolutionary origins and histories, with sessile rangeomorphs and arboreomorphs appearing in deep-water settings approximately 580 million years ago and spreading into shallow-water settings by 555 Ma but dickinsoniomorphs and other iconic clades restricted to shallow-water settings from their first known appearance at 555 Ma until their disappearance prior to the end of the Ediacaran.

The first occurrence of a pterosaur fossil from the Early Cretaceous of Peru is reported. The specimen consists of a nearly complete right humerus of a pteranodontid pterosaur preserved in three dimensions, presumably in a concretion. The Pteranodontidae is rediagnosed, and included genera and materials are listed. The Nyctosauridae and Dsungaripteridae are also diagnosed on the basis of postcranial characters, and the relationships of those three taxa plus the Azhdarchidae are discussed. The species Santanadactylus spixi Wellnhofer (1985) is reassigned to the Dsungaripteridae.

Burrows of the thalassinidean shrimp Callianassa californiensis and Upogebia pugettensis, which resemble the trace fossils Thalassinoides and Ophiomorpha, respectively, occur on the southern tidal flats at the western front of the Fraser Delta. Burrow densities for both shrimp species are highest at lower intertidal levels immediately inshore of an extensive bed of Zostera marina eelgrass, but the high-density shrimp populations are segregated: the highest densities of C. californiensis burrows (350–450 burrow openings/m2) occur in a strip of clean sandy sediments, whereas U. pugettensis burrows are most abundant (30–80 burrow openings/m2) in a patch of muddy sands and sandy muds. On the tidal flats of the Fraser Delta as a whole, however, textural properties of the sediment show no consistent correlation with the burrow density of either shrimp.

In the eelgrass bed, eelgrass root mats appear to markedly restrict the density of C. californiensis burrows. Towards the shore, the well-lined dwelling burrows of U. pugettensis occur no higher than mean sea level where maximum continuous exposure is ≤0.5 days. In contrast, C. californiensis, which has an unlined feeding burrow and a higher tolerance for anoxia, is present up to the margin of the local salt marsh which lies near the mean higher high water level where the flats can be exposed continuously up to 5 days.

In situ experiments indicate that C. californiensis extrudes 18 ± 9 ml of wet sediment/shrimp/ day onto the substrate surface, while U. pugettensis seldom forms a mound around its burrow entrance. Burial of filter-feeding postlarval U. pugettensis under the mounds produced by C. californiensis may increase postlarval mortality and reduce adult populations of U. pugettensis in areas of high C. californiensis burrow density.

The results of this study suggest that in distinguishing Ophiomorpha from Thalassinoides more emphasis should be placed on the presence of an extensive burrow lining in Ophiomorpha than on the presence of a knobby burrow exterior, because the former characteristic has a more profound bearing on burrow function, physiology of the occupant organism, and, consequently, burrow distribution.

Seymour Island, Antarctica (64°17'S), offers the first opportunity to examine the crisis at the end of the Cretaceous from the high southern latitudes. The K/T boundary sequence on Seymour Island consists of a nearly continuous sequence of siliciclastic sediments deposited in a mid-shelf environment. The faunal changes across the boundary occur through a 30-m interval with no single extinction horizon, in contrast to other well-studied K/T boundary sections. The “expanded” nature of the Seymour Island section makes placement of the K/T boundary difficult because boundary indicators such as planktic foraminifera, ammonites, and dinocysts disappear at different levels within the section.

A shallow-marine fossil biota was recovered from the Blue Bluff unit (formerly part of the McBean Formation) in the Upper Coastal Plain of eastern Georgia. Biochronologically significant mollusks (e.g., Turritella nasuta, Cubitostrea sellaeformis, Pteropsella lapidosa) and calcareous nannoplankton (e.g., Chiasmolithus solitus, Reticulofenestra umbilica, Cribocentrum reticulatum) indicate a latest Lutetian-earliest Bartonian age, or about 40 to 41 Ma. Georgiacetus vogtlensis new genus and species is described from a well-preserved, partial skeleton. Georgiacetus is the oldest known whale with a true pterygoid sinus fossa in its basicranium and a pelvis that did not articulate directly with the sacral vertebrae, two features whose acquisitions were important steps toward adaptation to a fully marine existence. The posterior four cheek teeth of G. vogtlensis form a series of carnassial-like shearing blades. These teeth also bear small, blunt accessory cusps, which are regarded as being homologous with the larger, sharper accessory cusps of basilosaurid cheek teeth.

The arthropod macrofauna from the Middle Member of the lithographic limestones of the Tlayúa Formation, in quarries at Tepexi, México, is comprised of marine and nonmarine components. Marine taxa include a new species of flabelliferid isopod, a new genus and species of an anomuran, and a new genus and species of a brachyuran crab. Remains of an arachnid and an odonate nymph represent nonmarine constituents. Previous paleoenvironmental interpretations of a restricted lagoon, with periodic episodes of marine and freshwater influences are consistent with the nature of the arthropod fauna. Isopod remains, represented only by corpses, that resemble modern ectoparasites of fishes suggest that they are directly associated with the abundant fish remains found in the quarries, either as ectoparasites that released their hosts before they died or possibly as scavengers that fed on fish remains. The next most abundant arthropods are the crabs, most of which are corpses, suggesting that this group lived in or very near to the depositional site of the Tlayúa Formation. Based upon the new fossil material, the stratigraphic range for the Aeglidae has been extended to span Albian to Holocene time. Extant representatives of this family inhabit fresh water environments of South America.

A literature-based compilation of phylogenetic relationships and biometric measurements of 342 Cenozoic planktonic foraminiferal species suggests that the group shows a net increase in size through the Cenozoic, thus appearing to follow Cope's Rule of phyletic size increase. However, when the data are corrected for size-related biases, they do not support the hypothesis that this apparent trend is driven by an organismal adaptive advantage of larger size.

When the planktonic foraminifera return to their “primitive” globigerine morphology during the Eocene-Oligocene transition, there is no indication of size-dependent origination or extinction; however, when the extinction signal is decomposed into pseudoextinctions and true lineage terminations, a differential pulse of pseudoextinction is observed among the smaller forms. This observation suggests that smaller bodied species, rather than surviving stressful times with static morphologies, may evolve their way through times of crisis and go on to found lineages which, by virtue of their initial small size, are stochastically likely to increase in mean size during subsequent diversification. Thus, one general explanation for Cope's Rule might be that smaller bodied species are more adaptively responsive due to their tendency to have shorter generation times. During times of stress, this adaptive responsiveness may give them an advantage that is correlated with, but causally unrelated to, their size.

The advent of readily available computer-based clustering packages has created some controversy in the micropaleontological community concerning the use and interpretation of computer-based biofacies discrimination. This is because dramatically different results can be obtained depending on methodology. The analysis of various clustering techniques reveals that, in most instances, no statistical hypothesis is contained in the clustering model and no basis exists for accepting one biofacies partitioning over another. Furthermore, most techniques do not consider standard error in species abundances and generate results that are not statistically relevant. When many rare species are present, statistically insignificant differences in rare species can accumulate and overshadow the significant differences in the major species, leading to biofacies containing members having little in common.

A statistically based “error-weighted maximum likelihood” (EWML) clustering method is described that determines biofacies by assuming that samples from a common biofacies are normally distributed. Species variability is weighted to be inversely proportional to measurement uncertainty. The method has been applied to samples collected from the Fraser River Delta marsh and shows that five distinct biofacies can be resolved in the data. Similar results were obtained from readily available packages when the data set was preprocessed to reduce the number of degrees of freedom. Based on the sample results from the new algorithm, and on tests using a representative micropaleontological data set, a more conventional iterative processing method is recommended. This method, although not statistical in nature, produces similar results to EWML (not commercially available yet) with readily available analysis packages. Finally, some of the more common clustering techniques are discussed and strategies for their proper utilization are recommended.

Exceptionally well preserved Lower Triassic conodonts from Oman include an array of Neospathodus species, many of which are new. Those from the upper Lower Triassic, or Spathian, are described in conjunction with a restudy of conodont type material from Chios, Greece, and an assessment of contemporary collections from Pakistan and western North America. The taxonomic scope of three key species from Chios, Neospathodus homeri, N. triangularis, and N. gondolelloides, is revised. Seven new species are described from Oman: N. abruptus, N. brevissimus, N. brochus, N. crassatus, N. curtatus, N. pusillus, and N. symmetricus; and one new species, N. clinatus, is described from Pakistan. The allied Icriospathodus collinsoni is also described from Oman. The occurrence and range of Neospathodus species are presented in the context of the ammonoid succession in the Spathian of North America. Both N. homeri and N. triangularis, as revised, have shorter ranges and are more age diagnostic than previously thought. Neospathodus gondolelloides is a distinct taxon, and not synonymous with Chiosella timorensis. Five informal faunal divisions are identified based on Neospathodus and allied species. In ascending stratigraphic order, these are typified by Icriospathodus collinsoni, Neospathodus homeri, N. triangularis, N. symmetricus, and N. gondolelloides. Oman collections represent three of these faunas, which occur also in the Columbites through Prohungarites/Subcolumbites ammonoid beds of western U.S.A.

Continental slope facies in eastern New York have the most diverse small shelly faunas known in Laurentian late Early Cambrian strata. Diversity of a lower Elliptocephala asaphoides assemblage, the oldest body fauna in the Taconic allochthon, reflects turbidity current exhumation, transport, and deposition of phosphatized fossil hash in a proximal facies of the Browns Pond Formation. Phosphatization is linked to the first of two Olenellus Chron intervals with a thickened dysaerobic water mass on the slope. This interval of increased rate of sea-level rise corresponds to development of extensive carbonate belts and onlap of dark shales (e.g., Forteau and lower Kinzers formations) on the east Laurentian shelf.

The assemblage includes two trilobites, archaeocyathan fragments, echinoderm debris, the first edrioasteriod from east Laurentia, and 26 small shelly fossil species. New taxa are Asperconella new genus and Stenotheca taconica new species (helcionellids); Mackinnonia obliqua new species (pararostroconch); Conotheca laurentiensis new species, Insolitotheca new genus, and Petasotheca minuta new genus and species (hyoliths); and Plinthokonion? psamminon new species (agglutinated problematicum).

Floodplain deposits of the Permian Laguna Polino Member (La Golondrina Formation) of southern Patagonia, Argentina, contain a moderate diversity invertebrate ichnofauna. This member consists of up to 500 m of ripple cross-laminated and trough cross-bedded, medium-grained sandstone and mudstone, with some conglomerate. It records sedimentation in braided fluvial environments with moderate channel sinuosity. The system was characterized by the development of multistory channels, transverse or linguoid bars, and levees. At the Laguna Grande locality, trace fossils were recovered from current-rippled, very fine-grained muddy sandstone beds formed in a pond adjacent to the levee. The ichnofauna consists of a mixed pascichnia, repichnia, and domichnia assemblage composed of Cochlichnus anguineus, Ctenopholeus kutscheri, Helminthoidichnites tenuis, Helminthopsis abeli, and Palaeophycus striatus. These low-energy ponds were more suitable for development of benthic fauna and preservation of ichnofossils than were fluvial channels and point bars. Accordingly, preservation of distinct trace fossil-bearing pond horizons within an otherwise unfossiliferous fluvial succession may be regarded as taphonomic and colonization windows. The colonization history of these beds can be traced through the study of cross-cutting and substrate relationships. Detailed ichnologic analysis suggests the following succession: 1) large Cochlichnus tracemakers colonizing transitional soupgrounds to softgrounds; 2) large and small Cochlichnus, Helminthopsis and Helminthoidichnites formed in softgrounds; and 3) Palaeophycus and Ctenopholeus emplaced in transitional soft to firm substrates. The colonization sequence suggests an ecologic replacement of a surface mobile fauna dominated by nematodes, nematomorphs, and larval insects by a more stationary infauna consisting of adult insects as a result of increasing consolidation. Presence of Ctenopholeus is significant because it represents the second report of this ichnogenus and the first from nonmarine settings.

Small shelly fossils from the Wirrealpa and Aroona Creek Limestones, Flinders Ranges, and the temporally equivalent Ramsay Limestone, Yorke Peninsula, South Australia, are described and assessed. These formations, deposited during a widespread marine transgression, have traditionally been assigned an early Middle Cambrian age based on lateral facies relationships, lithostratigraphic interpretation, and age diagnostic trilobites. However, new data from regional sequence stratigraphy and mounting paleontological evidence suggest that a late Early Cambrian age (equivalent to the Toyonian Stage from the Siberian Platform) is more appropriate for these units. Twenty-four taxa, including a number of problematica, poriferans, coeloscleritophorans, palaeoscolecidans, “conodontomorphs,” hyolithelminthes, hyoliths, mollusks, and inarticulate brachiopods, are reported herein; many of these have not previously been reported from the Cambrian of South Australia. The enigmatic Chalasiocranos exquisitum n. gen. and sp., known from disarticulated tuberculate cone-shaped phosphatic sclerites, and Protomelission gatehousei n. gen. and sp., a problematic, perhaps colonial organism, known from phosphatic plates, are especially notable. The genus Kaimenella is formally included in the Palaeoscolecida, and two species (including K. dailyi n. sp.) are recognized.

The Permian–Triassic boundary, examined at two sections in the Southern Alps, occurs ~ 1.0 to 1.5 m above the base of the Tesero Oolite Member of the Werfen Formation in a depositionally continuous sequence of inner neritic carbonates. Lagenide foraminifers from the boundary interval comprise 27 species in 15 genera plus additional unidentified taxa, most of which became extinct during the end-Permian crisis. The only survivors were “Nodosaria” elabugae and unidentified species in Geinitzina and Nodosinelloides, with representatives of the latter two genera being short-term holdovers. The end-Permian lagenide extinction level occurs a few decimeters below the biostratigraphically defined erathem boundary, just above the contact between the Bulla Member of the Bellerophon Formation and the overlying Tesero Oolite Member. Confidence intervals (>96%) for the lagenide extinction at the two sections are 0.03 and 0.04 m thick. Plots of species' stratigraphic abundance versus their last observed occurrences below the estimated extinction intervals at both localities are consistent with abrupt extinction or gradual extinction lasting no more than the time required for 1 m of rock to accumulate. Blooms of the foraminiferal disaster taxa Rectocornuspira kalhori and Earlandia sp. occur in the extinction interval and continue well into the Dienerian part of the Mazzin Member of the Werfen Formation, consistent with a protracted survival phase. A detailed carbon isotope record has been obtained from rocks bracketing the extinction at the well-known Tesero section. The combined microfossil and carbon isotope data indicate that the extinction occurred during an initial negative shift in δ13C. Therefore, the negative excursion is likely to be related to the cause of extinction and unlikely to be merely a consequence of extinction.

The purpose of this paper is to propose a chitinozoan zonation of the Ordovician of Quebec and western Newfoundland. On the basis of chitinozoan assemblages previously described from various sections, covering almost the entire Ordovician System, 22 biozones, based on first appearance of index species, are distinguished. As the strata from which the chitinozoan microfaunas were extracted are well dated by other fossils, especially graptolites, it is possible to establish a correlation between the chitinozoan and the established graptolite and conodont zonations of North America and Great Britain.

A new Fourier method is presented to quantify shapes too complex to be described by conventional polar Fourier analysis. The length along a closed curve serves as the independent variable. The centroid of the curve is determined and for each point on the curve two different dependent variables are defined, based on: 1) the angle defined by the starting point, the centroid, and the point on the curve; and 2) the radial distance from the centroid to the point on the curve. The method is used to describe the trilobite cranidium, and 12 harmonic coefficients are found to summarize 99 percent of the shape information contained in the cranidial outline. In an application to trilobite evolution during the Cambrian and Ordovician, it is found that higher taxa of trilobites become progressively more distinct morphologically. This result is in agreement with previous qualitative observations, and is attributable to an increase in morphologic dispersion among higher taxa, but not to a decrease in morphologic dispersion within higher taxa.

The Upper Proterozoic (ca. 700–800 Ma old) Backlundtoppen Formation, northeastern Spitsbergen, preserves an abundant and varied record of ancient microbial life. Five distinctive microfossil assemblages occur in five equally distinct sedimentary settings; differences among the assemblages appear to reflect original ecological heterogeneity, although taphonomic circumstance may contribute to some distinctions. Microfossil assemblages occur in: oncolites, oolites, and pisolites; stratiform stromatolites and associated intraclastic rudites; partially silicified micrites; and siltites interbedded with quartz arenites. Individual assemblages contain one to eight differentiable taxa; a minimum of 17 distinct populations is present in the formation as a whole. Additional microbial community diversity can be inferred from the presence of domal, columnar, pseudocolumnar, and coniform stromatolites, none of which contains microfossils. On the basis of macrostructure, four stromatolite types appear to be present, but only three distinct mat-building communities can be inferred from microstructural features. Eohyella elongata n. sp., a euendolithic cyanobacterium found in silicified pisolites, is described as new.

A major goal of biological classification is to provide a system that conveys phylogenetic relationships while facilitating lucid communication among researchers. Phylogenetic taxonomy is a useful framework for defining clades and delineating their taxonomic content according to well-supported phylogenetic hypotheses. The Crinoidea (Echinodermata) is one of the five major clades of living echinoderms and has a rich fossil record spanning nearly a half billion years. Using principles of phylogenetic taxonomy and recent phylogenetic analyses, we provide the first phylogeny-based definition for the Clade Crinoidea and its constituent subclades. A series of stem- and node-based definitions are provided for all major taxa traditionally recognized within the Crinoidea, including the Camerata, Disparida, Hybocrinida, Cladida, Flexibilia, and Articulata. Following recommendations proposed in recent revisions, we recognize several new clades, including the Eucamerata Cole 2017, Porocrinoidea Wright 2017, and Eucladida Wright 2017. In addition, recent phylogenetic analyses support the resurrection of two names previously abandoned in the crinoid taxonomic literature: the Pentacrinoidea Jaekel, 1918 and Inadunata Wachsmuth and Springer, 1885. Last, a phylogenetic perspective is used to inform a comprehensive revision of the traditional rank-based classification. Although an attempt was made to minimize changes to the rank-based system, numerous changes were necessary in some cases to achieve monophyly. These phylogeny-based classifications provide a useful template for paleontologists, biologists, and non-experts alike to better explore evolutionary patterns and processes with fossil and living crinoids.

Rangea is the type genus of the Rangeomorpha, an extinct clade near the base of the evolutionary tree of large, complex organisms which prospered during the late Neoproterozoic. It represents an iconic Ediacaran taxon, but the relatively few specimens previously known significantly hindered an accurate reconstruction. Discovery of more than 100 specimens of Rangea in two gutter casts recovered from Farm Aar in southern Namibia significantly expands this data set, and the well preserved internal and external features on these specimens permit new interpretations of Rangea morphology and lifestyle. Internal structures of Rangea consist of a hexaradial axial bulb that passes into an axial stalk extending the length of the fossil. The axial bulb is typically filled with sediment, which becomes increasingly loosely packed and porous distally, with the end of the stalk typically preserved as an empty, cylindrical cone. This length of the axial structure forms the structural foundation for six vanes arranged radially around the axis, with each vane consisting of a bilaminar sheet composed of a repetitive pattern of elements exhibiting at least three orders of self-similar branching. Rangea was probably an epibenthic frond that rested upright on the sea bottom, and all known fossil specimens were transported prior to their final burial in storm deposits.