Studies were carried out to determine the predilection sites of Trichinella nativa muscle larvae in arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus) caught in Greenland. The highest number of larvae per gram of tissue was found in the muscles of the eyes and the legs. With regard to predilection sites no significant differences were demonstrated either between age groups or between foxes with high and low total parasite burdens. Predilection sites were comparable with those recorded earlier in experimentally infected caged foxes and in other carnivorous species. Hypotheses on predilection sites of Trichinella muscle larvae are discussed.

The interaction between Duddingtonia flagrans and infective larvae of Haemonchus contortus was studied in vitro under optical and scanning electron microscopy. Trap formation by the fungus started 9 hours after inoculation and first larvae were found 11 hours after larval inoculation on colonies grown on the surface of dialysis membranes. Scanning electron micrographs were taken 12, 24, 36 and 48 h after larval predation. Details of predation structures and fungus–larvae interaction are described. A mucilaginous substance occurred at the points of adherence of traps to nematode cuticle. Bacteria were also found at some points of interaction between fungus and larval cuticle. Cuticle penetration by fungus hyphae occurred only 48 h after predation.

The results of the examination for helminth parasites of 146 Larus ridibundus, ten L. argentalus and eight L. fuscus are presented. Thirty-six parasite species were found, 27 from L. ridibundus, 21 from L. argentatus and 19 from L. fuscus. The trematodes Apophallus muhlingi, Aporchis massiliensis, Brachylecithum microtesticulatum, Knipowitschetrema echinatum, and Philophthalmus lucipetus are described. A list of British records of helminth parasites from L. ridibundus, L. argentatus and L. fuscus is appended.

The prevalence of human cercarial dermatitis (HCD) caused by bird schistosomes appears to be increasing in France, in light of the impact of tourism combined with high densities of wild aquatic hosts in freshwater areas. The present work expands our knowledge of schistosome systematics by including samples of bird schistosomes collected from their natural hosts in France. Heads (318) and viscera (81) of aquatic birds belonging to 16 species from five orders, collecting during the hunting seasons or found dead, were autopsied for nasal and visceral schistosomes. Eggs and/or adults were analysed by molecular methods using the D2 domain and the second internal transcribed spacer (ITS-2) region of rDNA to determine species. Even if nasal eggs were polymorphic according to the host, all haplotypes were similar to that of Trichobilharzia regenti. Marked diversity of visceral species was observed. Final hosts under natural conditions were reported. For the first time, Trichobilharzia franki is reported in its natural bird hosts, Anas platyrhynchos, Anas crecca, Aythya fuligula and Cygnus olor. We also identified T. szidati in A. crecca and Anas clypeata. Bilharziella polonica was found in six species of aquatic birds, including Grus grus. This finding is the first record of bird schistosomes in this aquatic bird. Three new taxa of visceral schistosomes in Anser anser are strongly suspected according to their haplotypes. Futhermore, a new haplotype of visceral schistosomes isolated in Cygnus olor and similar to Allobilharzia visceralis was identified.

1. Four new species of the genus Diplectanum Diesing, 1858 are described. These are D. cupatum sp.nov. from the gills of both Epinephelus merra Bloch and E. fasciatus (Forskål), D. plectropomi sp.nov. from the gills of Plectropomus maculatus (Bloch), D. summanae sp. nov. from the gills of E. summana (Forskål), and D. vagampullum sp.nov. from the gills of E. merra Bloch.

2. Latericaecum gen.nov. and Monoplectanum gen.nov. are proposed to contain L. pearsoni sp.nov. and M. australis sp.nov. collected from the gills of Sphyraena obtusata Cuvier & Vallenciennes and Sillago ciliata respectively. Calydiscoides gen.nov. is proposed to contain C. australis sp.nov. from the gills of Lethrinus chrystostomu Richardson together with C. difficilis (Yamaguti, 1953) comb.nov., C. duplicostatus (Yamaguti, 1953) comb.nov. and C.flexuosus (Yamaguti, 1953) comb.nov.

3. Lepidotrema angusta (Johnston & Tiegs, 1922) Price, 1937 and L. bidyana Murray, 1931 are redescribed from fresh materials from the type hosts and the generic diagnosis is emended from a study of these specimens, new specimens of L. tenue Johnston & Tiegs, 1922, and named material of L. therapon Johnston & Tiegs, 1922.

Mouse (C3H) mucosal glycoconjugates were examined in normal small intestines and intestines infected with Echinostoma caproni, or E. trivolvis using six different fluorescein-conjugated lectins: Triticum, vulgaris agglutinin (WGA), Ulex europaeus agglutinin I (UEA-I), Ricinus communis agglutinin I (RCA-I). Glycine max soybean agglutinin (SBA), Dolichos biflorus agglutinin (DBA), and Arachis hypogaeu peanut agglutinin (PNA). The expression of lectin-binding sites and the intensity of the binding of lectins in the mouse small intestines were changed by infection with the echinostomes. Specific differences in the reaction to glycoproteins were clearly observed between the mouse intestines infected with E. caproni and those infected with E. trivolvis. In E. caproni infection, binding of most of the lectins to the villi was remarkably reduced in accord with the villous atrophy and loss of goblet cells. In contrast, in E. trivolvis infection, the binding of WGA, RCA-I and DBA was reduced in the microvillar surfaces, but binding of UEA-I and SBA were unchanged compared to the control intestines. The lectin binding to goblet cells in E. trivolvis-infected mice mostly increased. These observations may reflect the marked increase in goblet cells and the less severe damage in the villi of E. trivolvis infection compared to E. caproni infection. Most of the glycoconjugates were slightly reduced in the hyperplastic crypts except for N-acetyl glucosamine. It is possible that glucose metabolism in the host intestines infected with E. trivolvis was activated. resulting in an increase in the rate of mucin synthesis as well as qualitative changes in mucus, thereby mediating the expulsion of the worms.

During the years 2002–2007, Icelandic freshwater snails and birds from different orders were examined for bird schistosomes. Only the snail Radix peregra and anatid birds proved to be infected. In total, 32 samples of bird schistosome cercariae from seven localities and four samples of adults of Anas platyrhynchos and Mergus serrator from two localities were used for sequencing of the internal transcibed spacer (ITS) region of rDNA. Based on the sequence and position in the phylogenetic tree, five species/genotypes of bird schistosomes were identified. Three of them correspond to the sequences in GenBank for Trichobilharzia franki, Trichobilharzia sp. JR-2007 from Anas penelope (isolates Pl7 and Pl10) and schistosomatid sp. JR-2004 from Physa fontinalis. The other two species/genotypes belong to the genus Trichobilharzia, but their further determination was not possible due to lack of data. All of these species/genotypes develop in R. peregra, probably the only suitable intermediate host species in Iceland. As T. franki and schistosomatid sp. JR-2004 were previously reported from other snail species, the findings from Iceland proved that, under some circumstances, bird schistosomes are able to adapt to a different snail species; some of them can even adapt to a snail belonging to a different gastropod family. High diversity of bird schistosomes in Iceland is probably linked with migratory flyways of birds, as several bird species from Iceland overwinter in western Europe as well as in North America.

Larval stages of Anisakis spp. (Nematoda: Anisakidae) were found encapsulated or free in the viscera and abdominal cavity of the black-scabbard fish, Aphanopus carbo, chub mackerel, Scomber japonicus and oceanic horse mackerel, Trachurus picturatus in Madeiran waters. The prevalence of infection reached 97.2% (n=142) for A. carbo, 69.5% (n=154) for S. japonicus and 62.5% (n=40) for T. picturatus. Considerable differences in parasite intensities between A. carbo and both S. japonicus and T. picturatus were found, with mean intensities up to 69.6 in A. carbo, while in the other two fish hosts the intensity reached only a maximum of 2.6. These differences were probably due to different feeding behaviours of the hosts. Intensities of Anisakis sp. in A. carbo were high irrespective of sex and season. No relationship between host length and prevalence of infection was observed for A. carbo, while for S. japonicus a weak positive significant relationship was found.

Toxocara spp. eggs require a period of time under appropriate environmental conditions to become infective to definitive and paratenic hosts. Temperature and humidity are important factors known to affect the levels of development in soil. We aimed to investigate whether the eggs of T. canis could embryonate in dog hair under controlled conditions of temperature and humidity and, if so, to what degree. No previous work had been carried out on embryonation in hair under controlled conditions. Soil samples exposed to the same conditions as the hair samples were considered a suitable comparison in order to investigate differing levels of development. Development at two temperatures (10°C and 20°C) and the addition of water to samples was investigated over a period of 8 weeks. Importantly, we demonstrated that unembryonated T. canis eggs are capable of development in hair under controlled conditions. The rate of development is lower than that observed in soil, but remains biologically significant in terms of the overall numbers of potentially infective embryonated eggs present. Temperature is responsible for the rate of embryonation while moisture is essential for encouraging development and maintaining egg viability in general. In light of these findings the transmission of Toxocara spp. as a result of direct contact with well-cared-for owned dogs seems unlikely, but should not be ignored.

A preliminary publication recording the discovery of mustard as a factor influencing the cyst formation of Heterodera schachtii, and describing various experiments to demonstrate the effects of this factor, has already been made. Mustard seedlings grown to a height of about three inches and then broken down in soil in which a potato plant was immediately thereafter grown, were found to exert some influence on the development of the nematode, which partially inhibited the formation of cysts on the roots of the potato plant. The reduction in the number of cysts developed on the roots of a plant so treated, as compared with a plant grown in infected soil without mustard, was found to average over 60 per cent.

A comparative analysis of parasite species richness was performed across 53 species of fish from the floodplain of the upper Paraná River, Brazil. Values of catch per unit effort, CPUE (number of individuals of a given fish species captured per 1000 m2 of net during 24 h) were used as a rough measure of population density for each fish species in order to test its influence on endoparasite species richness. The effects of several other host traits (body size, social behaviour, reproductive behaviour, spawning type, trophic category, feeding habits, relative position in the food web, preference for certain habitats and whether the fish species are native or exotic) on metazoan endoparasite species richness were also evaluated. The CPUE was the sole significant predictor of parasite species richness, whether controlling for the confounding influences of host phylogeny and sampling effort or not. The results suggest that in the floodplain of the upper Paraná River (with homogeneous physical characteristics and occurrence of many flood pulses), population density of different host species might be the major determinant of their parasite species richness.

The composition and diversity of total and intestinal helminth component and infracommunities were determined in eels Anguilla anguilla from four shallow coastal lagoons near Rome. The lagoons differed principally in respect of their salinity. Only Lake Burano still received an input of freshwater, and both freshwater and marine helminth species were found in eels. In the other three lagoons all helminth species were marine or euryhaline and communities were dominated by digeneans. At component community level these three lagoons were far more similar to each other than to Lake Burano, but this distinction almost disappeared at infracommunity level. Species richness and diversity declined with increasing salinity at component community level but not at infracommunity level. Despite the changes and differences in helminth community composition, intestinal helminth infracommunity structure was very similar in all four lagoons and to that in eels from freshwater localities in Britain. The findings thus provide further and unexpected support for the view that some factor(s) other than supply side ones must be operating to produce the fundamental structural similarity in helminth communities in eels.

The suitability of sheep and cattle as hosts for Fasciola hepatica was compared after infection with metacercariae of ovine or bovine origin. It was found that, irrespective of the host of origin, the prepatent periods and the infectivity in both hosts were similar. The flukes in the sheep grew faster, more uniformly and to a greater size, but the individual parasites in the cattle produced approximately twice as many eggs per day as those in the sheep.

1. This paper presents experimental evidence to show that Limnaea truncatula is not the only British snail susceptible to infection with Fasciola hepatica.

2. Of the six British species of Limnaea, five may be infected under laboratory conditions, L. auricularia proving resistant to infection. Full development of the parasite occurs in L. truncatula, L. slagnalis, L. palustris and L. glabra, while development as far as the production of rediae occurred on one occasion in L. pereger. Of the susceptible species L. truncatula may be infected at any age or size, but the other species are susceptible only during the first few days after hatching.

3. F. hepatica appeared to be relatively pathogenic to hosts other than L. truncatula even though the level of infection (as evidenced by the number of rediae which developed) was considerably lower than in the more usual host.

Schistosomiasis is a tropical disease caused by Schistosoma and occurs in 54 countries, mainly in South America, the Caribbean region, Africa and the eastern Mediterranean. Currently, 5 to 6 million Brazilian people are infected and 30,000 are under infection risk. Typical of poor regions, this disease is associated with the lack of basic sanitation and very frequently to the use of contaminated water in agriculture, housework and leisure. One of the most efficient methods of controlling the disease is application of molluscicides to eliminate or to reduce the population of the intermediate host snail Biomphalaria glabrata. Studies on molluscicidal activity of plant extracts have been stimulated by issues such as environmental preservation, high cost and recurrent resistance of snails to synthetic molluscicides. The aim of this study was to determine the molluscicide action of extracts from Piperaceae species on adult and embryonic stages of B. glabrata. Fifteen extracts from 13 Piperaceae species were obtained from stems, leaves and roots. Toxicity of extracts was evaluated against snails at two different concentrations (500 and 100 ppm) and those causing 100% mortality at 100 ppm concentration were selected to obtain the LC90 (lethal concentration of 90% mortality). Piper aduncum, P. crassinervium, P. cuyabanum, P. diospyrifolium and P. hostmannianum gave 100% mortality of adult snails at concentrations ranging from 10 to 60 ppm. These extracts were also assayed on embryonic stages of B. glabrata and those from P. cuyabanum and P. hostmannianum showed 100% ovicidal action at 20 ppm.

In order to identify the respective importance of the ecological and biological factors involved in the transmission of Echinococcus multilocularis, we estimated grassland vole intermediate host (Microtus sp. and Arvicola terrestris) population densities, in relation to the diet of the definitive host (red fox, Vulpes vulpes) and with the prevalence of E. multilocularis in the fox population. The study was conducted in the Ardennes, north-eastern France, which is an area with a high incidence of alveolar echinococcosis. Surface index methods showed that Microtus was the most abundant intermediate host in the area. Furthermore, Microtus was present in one-third of the 144 faeces and 98 stomach content samples examined and represented more than two-thirds of the rodent occurrences. Red fox predation on Microtus was significantly correlated with Microtus relative abundance. In contrast, the relative abundance of A. terrestris was very low. This species, as well as Clethrionomys glareolus and Apodemus sp., was little consumed. E. multilocularis prevalence in foxes was determined from carcasses and reached 53% (95% confidence interval 45–61%). Intensity of infection varied from 2 to 73,380 worms per fox, with 72% of the sampled worm burden harboured by 8% of the sampled foxes. The selected explanatory variables (sex, year, age class, health and nutritional condition, and season) failed to predict prevalence rate and worm burden. The high prevalence rate in foxes indicates the possibility of intense E. multilocularis transmission, apart from periods, or in landscapes, favourable to large population outbreaks of grassland rodents.

The possibilities of disease prediction based on the environmental characteristics of geographical areas and specific requirements of the causative infectious agents are reviewed and, in the case of parasites whose life cycles involve more than one host, the needs of the intermediate hosts are also referred to. The geographical information systems framework includes epidemiological data, visualization (in the form of maps), modelling and exploratory analysis using spatial statistics. Examples include climate-based forecast systems, based on the concept of growing degree days, which now exist for several parasitic helminths such as fasciolosis, schistosomiasis, dirofilariasis and also for malaria. The paper discusses the limits of data collection by remote sensing in terms of resolution capabilities (spatial, temporal and spectral) of sensors on-board satellites. Although the data gained from the observation of oceans, land, elevations, land cover, land use, surface temperatures, rainfall, etc. are primarily for weather forecasting, military and commercial use, some of this information, particularly that from the climate research satellites, is of direct epidemiological utility. Disease surveillance systems and early-warning systems (EWS) are prime examples of academic approaches of practical importance. However, even commercial activities such as the construction of virtual globes, i.e. computer-based models of the Earth, have been used in this respect. Compared to conventional world maps, they do not only show geographical and man-made features, but can also be spatially annotated with data on disease distribution, demography, economy and other measures of particular interest.

Eight species of Monogenea (Dactylogyridae) are reported from the gills of freshwater fishes from Colombia as follows: Anacanthonis colombiamis sp. n. from Salminus affinis Steindachner and Tilapia mossambica (Peters); A. cuticulovaginus sp. n. from S. affinis; Cichlidogyrus sclerosus Paperna and Thurston, 1969, and C. tilapiae Paperna, 1960, both from T. mossambica; Urocleidoides costaricensis (Price and Bussing, 1967) Kritsky and Leiby, 1972, U. hcteroancistrium (Price and Bussing, 1968) Kritsky and Leiby, 1972, and U. strombicirrus (Price and Bussing, 1967) comb. n. (all) from Astyanax fasciatus (Cuvier); and U. anops sp. n. from Characidium caucanum Eigenmann. C. sclerosus and C. tilapiae are recorded for the first time from the western hemisphere.

The route of migration and development of Ancylostoma ceylanicum, when given orally, has been described for the first time in hamsters. A predominant feature of the migration is the absence of any lung journey. This is unlike A. caninum, A. duodenale and A, brazilicnse when larvae are similarly given to an abnormal host. The larvae of A. ceylanicum apparently had no submucosal migration