This article offers a sensitive reading of oppositional political cartoons in Togo in the early 1990s, during the period of structural adjustment, which was accompanied by the swift reversal of democratizing trends and the restoration of authoritarian rule. Togolese satirists perceived this moment as a moment of “fraudonomics”, thus contesting rampant corruption and clientelism in politics. They poked fun at the president, local politicians, businesspeople, and bureaucrats of the international institutions. The article begins by examining the making of satirical newspapers with a focus on the biographies of the satirists. As students, they started out on the adventure of publication with their own money and learned most of their drawing and printing techniques as work progressed. Secondly, an analysis of the readership shows that, although the satirical newspapers were a crucial element of the media in the early 1990s, it was mostly an elitist and urban phenomenon. The third section analyses the changing visual repertoire of contention through in-depth analysis of four selected caricatures.

“MIKHAIL ALEKSANDROVICH BAKUNIN is in San Francisco ”, announced the front page of Herzen's Kolokol November 1861. “HE IS FREE!Bakunin left Siberia via Japan and is on his way to England. We joyfully bring this news to all Bakunin's friends.” Arrested in Chemnitz in May 1849, Bakunin had been extradited to Russia in 1851 and, after six years in the Peter-Paul and Schlürg fortresses, condemned to perpetual banishment in Siberia. On June 17, 1861, however, he began his dramatic escape. Setting out from Irkutsk, he sailed down the Amur to Nikolaevsk, where he boarded a government vessel plying the Siberian coast. Once at sea, he transferred to an American sailing ship, the Vickery, which was trading in Japanese ports, and reached Japan on August 16th. A month later, on September 17th, he sailed from Yokohama on another American vessel, the Carrington, bound for San Francisco. He arrived four weeks later, completing, in Herzen's description, “the very longest escape in a geographical sense”.

Welchen Platz nimmt die Bibliographic der Arbeiterbewegung und des Sozialismus heute ein und wie füllt sie ihn aus? Der beträchtliche Aufschwung, den in den letzten 15 Jahren die Historiographie auf diesem Gebiet erfahren hat, fand seinen Ausdruck auch in erheblich vermehrter bibliographischer Tätigkeit. Die Zahl der in den letzten 10 bis 15 Jahren veröffentlichten Bibliographien ist bedeutend höher als die der im vorhergegangenen halben Jahrhundert gedruckten. Der Historiker der Arbeiterbewegung, wie übrigens auch manche seiner Kollegen anderer Spezialgebiete, benutzt häufig die ihm von den Hilfs-wissenschaften zur Verfügung gestellten Arbeitsinstrumente, insbesondere Bibliographien, ohne die ihrer Herstellung eigenen Bedingungen und Probleme näher zu kennen. Dies mangelnde Verständnis ist der Forschung im allgemeinen abträglich und führt, wie wir weiterhin sehen werden, zu Kraftvergeudung. In einzelnen Fällen kann man sich des Eindrucks nicht erwehren, die Geschichtsschreibung sei der Bibliographie vorausgeeilt, die unumgängliche bibliographische Vorbereitung der Arbeit durch den Historiker sei unzulänglich gewesen oder jedenfalls nicht von dem dazu berufenen Spezialisten durchgeführt worden. Die eigentliche Ursache solcher Erscheinungen ist weniger in Uebereilung des Historikers oder im Zurückbleiben des Bibliographen zu suchen, sondern vielmehr in mangelnder Koordination beider Tätigkeiten und infolgedessen ungenügend formulierten Ansprüchen an die Qualität der von der Hilfswissenschaft geforderten Arbeit. Auf die Frage der Koordination werden wir noch zurückkommen. Wenden wir uns zuerst, ohne jegliche polemische Absicht, einigen Fragen zu, die uns für den Bibliographen wesentlich zu sein scheinen. 1. Die Isolierung der Bibliographen fährt zu einer bedeutenden Kraft-verschwendung. Gar nicht selten unternehmen zwei oder mehr Forscher ungewusst und unabhängig voneinander eine gleiche Arbeit.

On Tuesday September 15th, 1931, at 8.00 a.m. most of the stokers of the forenoon watch in the battleship HMS Valiant, under orders to sail from Invergordon for exercises in the North Sea, refused duty and prevented the ship from sailing. In the battleships Rodney and Nelson and the battle-cruiser Hood, all due to follow Valiant out to sea, the crews also refused to turn to. By 9.31 a.m. the admiral commanding the Atlantic Fleet had cancelled the exercises and recalled to Cromarty Firth those ships already at sea. What was to become known as the Invergordon Mutiny had begun. In reality it was a passive protest over recently announced cuts in pay. At various times in the course of the next thirty-six hours large numbers of the 12,000 men in the twelve capital ships at Invergordon joined in the action and refused orders.

One of the by-products of the Keynesian Revolution has been a painstaking search for precursors of Keynes. Diligent academics have compiled an impressive array of “proto-Keynesians”, although some have only slender claims to the title. There has been a preoccupation with those writers whose contributions were exclusively theoretical. This bias is surprising in view of the nature of Keynes' own approach which was to progress from policy prescription to theory. The “proto-Keynesians” in general failed to proceed to Keynesian policy prescriptions, being unable to withstand the attacks of orthodox theorists; yet some commentators, ignorant of theoretical niceties, intuitively arrived at policy programmes which Keynes later endorsed. This latter group placed particular emphasis on public works programmes as a method of combating unemployment. Economists have credited the Liberal Party, J. M. Keynes and H. D. Henderson with being the first, in the inter-war years, to emphasise public works as one solution to the problem of chronic unemployment. Klein, examining Keynes' and Henderson's arguments in support of the Liberal Party's 1929 General Election commitment to a public works programme, states that “no one was thinking seriously along these lines at the time of the Great Depression.” Most other commentators have stressed the original nature of the Liberal programme of 1929, notably Harrod, Macgregor and Dillard. The purpose of this paper is to indicate the contribution of the Labour movement to the inter-war discussion of public works. It is contended that there has been undue emphasis on the Liberal Party's literature of the 1920S and early 1030s. In fact, the Liberal programme was in many respects similar to that which had been expounded by trade unionists and the Labour Party since 1917. To establish this argument it is necessary, first, to outline the historical background against which the inter-war discussion of public works took place.

The history of urban labor in modern China is deeply entangled in questions of the communist revolution, and so are the interpretations of that history. If we leave out two important accounts of labor in Chinese written by organizers before the 1960s, studies of labor in modern China only have a four-decade history.

I and my son are bakers and barbers, you and your sons are lapidaries and gardeners, but if you bid one of your sons be barber, a second baker, a third lapidary and a fourth gardener, all is confusion, and how can good come out of it? Furthermore he is no barber nor baker who does not belong to the Guild of the Barbers and the Guild of the Bakers. If your son [does not go] to the peshkadim and rank himself among the apprentices; next to the tehaoosh, to bid him inscribe his name on the rolls; then to the kihaya, to pay him toll, how should he be a member of the guild? Ask of the scheikh if I have not spoken well.

Central to Professor Pollard's “Reflections on a Re-consideration” is the contention that in 1917 Britain's co-operators decided to enter electoral politics as a result of the acceleration of long-run economic and social change. This decision, it is argued, emerged naturally from the steady prewar growth in class-consciousness established by secular shifts in the fabric of Britain's economy and society. We can agree that there is some evidence of a slow growth of class-consciousness before 1914, but not that this should have as its “natural” outcome the establishment of a political party by the British co-operative movement. It remains my contention that this departure was principally the result of the post-1914 experience of British co-operators.

Refuge traditionnel des exilés politiques au XIXème siècle, trait d'union géographique et historique entre le socialisme allemand et le socialisme français, la Belgique socialiste fut choisie, en 1900, par considération pratique, comme centre officiel de la IIème Internationale. Le Comité Exécutif Permanent du Bureau Socialiste International, qui assurait l'existence de l'association entre ses congrès, était exclusivement composé de Belges. Grâce à cette situation privilégiée, Émile Vandervelde, son président, et Camille Huysmans, son secrétaire depuis 1905, jouàrent sur le plan international, un rôle appréciable. La publication récente de la correspondance échangée entre Huysmans et Lénine vient encore, s'il le fallait, de le mettre en lumière.

The American revolution, with its accompanying changes in the economic, social and political life of the thirteen colonies, failed to alter the Negroes' “outsider status”. In this article the struggle for political rights will be considered as a factor in changing that “outsider status.” It seems justifiable to single out for special treatment a period of less known political action aimed at improving – or sometimes simply defending – the Negro's status as a citizen.

This paper investigates the history of the labour process in New Zealand's state-owned railway workshops and questions the idea that large-scale industry inevitably destroyed whatever agency skilled workers had enjoyed. It also shows that relations of production vary with the political and cultural contexts. Craft control of the labour process survived in New Zealand's state-owned railway workshops and the union played only a minor role. Jop control was more important in achieving bureaucratic instead of autocratic control over such matters as hiring and firing; the retention of apprentice-based crafts; the institutionalization of seniority; and in resisting both de-skilling and the “premium bonus”. The strength and vitality of shop culture, based on craft control of the labour process, also survived and modified the Government's vigorous attempt to introduce “scientific management”. In brief the article concludes that productive processes do not inevitably determine social relations of production, that capitalism has been neither homogeneous nor uniform, and that mechanization never inevitably results in de-skilling.

The great strike movement in France in the summer of 1936, which took its peculiar form of action in a series of stay-in strikes, can only be explained by the general state of mind of the French working-class in the spring of 1936. France had found itself for the last two years in a state of growing social and political fermentation. The danger of the militant social and political reaction, which manifested itself particularly clearly in February 1934, had roused the socially and politically progressive elements in France and enabled the reconciliation of the two great labour parties. It also surmounted the discord in the trade-unions and led to the formation of the “Popular Front”, which gained a glorious victory at the elections of deputies on April 26th and May 3rd 1936. In the course of this development of events the social consciousness of the working-class was strengthened. The feeling no longer to have to accept meekly the privations they had had to suffer during the years of depression, and no longer to stand deprived of their rights by their employers, gradually grew stronger. The beginning of 1936 marked a tremendous growth of the membership in the trade-unions and everywhere in the working-class there was a state of ferment. Characteristic of this development is, above all, the fact that in the beginning of the movement of 1936 the material claims, the claims for raising wages, often played a less prominent part and fell back behind the aspiration for mitigation of the social inferiority of the working-class, that is to say, the actual acknowledgement of the workman's right to join a trade-union, the realization of the system of collective contracts, the admittance of representatives of the workers in the different industries.