Hexane extracts of 10 different varieties of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) obtained in the vegetative and flowering periods were studied for synomonal response of the egg parasitoid Trichogramma chilonis Ishii. Gas chromatography of leaf extracts revealed the presence of saturated hydrocarbons ranging from C14 to C29 in varying numbers and concentrations. These hydrocarbons elicited varied synomonal responses from the parasitoid. The quantity of individual hydrocarbons varied from 72 to 34,940 ppm in the vegetative period and from 4 to 46,170 ppm in the flowering period. Hexane extracts obtained during the flowering period showed a greater synomonal response compared with those obtained during the vegetative period. A better response observed for certain varieties of tomato at a particular period could be due to the presence of higher concentrations of favourable hydrocarbons relative to unfavourable ones. Synomonal activity seems to be associated mainly with tricosane, heneicosane, pentacosane and hexacosane during the vegetative period and with heneicosane and hexacosane during the flowering period. In the vegetative period, the tomato variety To-Pant-T4 elicited the highest activity as well as parasitism at the lowest concentration of 25,000 ppm, which was higher than other varieties at all concentrations. Varieties To-BT-116-32, To-BT-20-2-1 and To-Pant-T3 in the vegetative period and To-Selection-15, To-Selection-32 and To-BT-22-2-1 in the flowering period elicited higher responses than the other varieties. To-BT-20-2-1 elicited a maximum response in the flowering period, which may be due to the presence of higher relative quantities of tricosane, heneicosane and hexacosane. In view of these findings, tomato varieties with favourable semiochemicals could be exploited in an integrated pest management programme to enhance the effectiveness of the egg parasitoid T. chilonis against the fruit borer Helicoverpa armigera (Hb).

The antibiotic effects of 12 different cotton genotypes on Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) were studied during June–July and August–September 2003, with the objective to determine the biological parameters which are important to study the mechanism of antibiosis and to identify the genotypes in which antibiosis is operating. The detailed biology of whitefly, i.e. developmental period, survival, fecundity, longevity and sex ratio were studied under ‘no choice’ conditions, by confining the whiteflies in leaf cages. The study revealed that incubation period, nymphal developmental time, total developmental time, nymphal survival, total survival, fecundity and female longevity are the most important biological parameters for detecting the presence of antibiosis in resistant cotton genotypes against whiteflies. On the other hand, pupal period and survival, male longevity and sex ratio do not seem to play important roles in antibiosis. The combined effect of these parameters indicated that Gossypium arboreum genotype PA 183 was the most resistant while Bt 6304, TX Maroon 2–78 and F846 were the most susceptible ones. Other genotypes with moderate resistance include Supriya and LD 694.

Food losses caused by insects during postharvest storage are of paramount economic importance worldwide, especially in Africa. Laboratory bioassays were conducted in stored grains to determine the toxicity of powders of Eugenia aromatica and Moringa oleifera alone or combined with enhanced diatomaceous earth (Probe-A® DE, 89.0% SiO2 and 5% silica aerogel) to adult Sitophilus granarius, Tribolium castaneum and Acanthoscelides obtectus. Adult mortality was observed up to 7 days, while progeny production was recorded at 6–10 weeks. LD50 and LT50 values for adult test insects exposed to plant powders and DE, showed that A. obtectus was the most susceptible towards the botanicals (LD50 0.179% and 0.088% wt/wt for E. aromatica and M. oleifera, respectively), followed by S. granarius. Tribolium castaneum was most tolerant (LD50 1.42% wt/wt and 1.40% wt/wt for E. aromatica and M. oleifera, respectively). The combined mixture of plant powders and DE controlled the beetles faster compared to the plant powders alone. LT50 ranged from 55.7 h to 62.5 h for T. castaneum exposed to 1.0% M. oleifera and 1.0% DE, and 0.5% E. aromatica and 1.0% DE, respectively. Botanicals caused significant reduction of F1 adults compared to the control. Combined action of botanical insecticides with DE as a grain protectant in an integrated pest management approach is discussed.

Some factors affecting oviposition by Plodia interpunctella (Hubner) were studied under various controlled conditions in the laboratory. The effect of temperature, relative humidity, light and mating on oviposition were investigated.

Temperatures of 25 and 30°C were optimal for oviposition. The best condition was 30°C and 80% r.h. at which an average of 315.3 eggs were laid per female during its lifetime. The least favourable temperatures investigated were 15 and 35°C. Relative humidity did not have significant effect on the number of eggs laid at 15 and 25°C but at higher temperatures of 30 and 35°C, high r.h. increased the number of eggs laid by individual moths.

Light regimes of 12 hr light and 12hr darkness (LD) and 24 hr darkness (DD) were more favourable than 24 hr light (LL) for oviposition.

Virgin females laid fewer eggs than mated females while prolonged virginity reduced the number of eggs laid and caused resorption of immature oocytes and retention of ripe eggs in the ovaries.

Dengue vector control programmes are mainly focused on insecticide fogging/space spraying to control adult Aedes mosquito vector populations. Due to the diurnal habit of the vectors, spraying is routinely conducted during the day when many other insect species are also active. This study reports the simultaneous effect of fogging on non-target insects by direct counting of knockdown in the insect population. Eight fogging treatments were conducted in two sites in Kurunegala District of Sri Lanka. Pesguard insecticide was sprayed in each treatment for 8 minutes according to the standard methodology and the ‘knockdown insects’ were collected on randomly spread polyethythene sheets (10 m2). A total of 3884 insects (24.3 insects per treatment per m2) belonging to 12 orders were collected and 12.44% of them recovered during a 24-hr recovery period. Diptera was the most affected insect order (36%) followed by Collembola (30%) and Thysanoptera (17%). Out of the 31 mosquitoes (<1%) collected, only two (<0.1%) belonged to the genus Aedes. Body length of 93% of the affected insects ranged from 0.35 mm to 1.8 mm. Positive controls using the WHO standard cage bioassays with the mosquito Ae. albopictus (n = 417) and the stingless bee Trigona iridipennis (n = 122) showed 100% initial knockdown, and 83.5% mosquito and 93.5% bee mortalities after the recovery period. The study shows that insecticide fogging does have a severe effect on non-target insects such as pollinators; therefore, fogging operations should be done in a controlled manner and indiscriminate fogging should be avoided.

The anthocorid bug Orius albidipennis Reuter is a generalist predator that feeds on the whitefly Bemisia tabaci Gennadius and the strawberry spider mite Tetranychus turkestani Ugarov & Nikolski in greenhouse crops. There are no previous studies on the potential efficacy of the predatory bug against these pests on greenhouse crops. We report on the efficacy and the prey preference of the predator to control these pests on different host plants under laboratory conditions. In a laboratory experiment, we estimated the predation rates of O. albidipennis at different densities of each prey after 24 h on cucumber and sweet pepper leaves. Predation rates of the predatory bug to T. turkestani and B. tabaci were significantly higher on sweet pepper leaf than on cucumber leaf. We studied the effect of plant species on prey preference and switching of O. albidipennis to B. tabaci and T. turkestani using Manly's α index values and Murdoch's no-switch line, respectively. Our results show that O. albidipennis prefers T. turkestani to B. tabaci on both host plants but its preference for T. turkestani on sweet pepper is significantly greater than on cucumber. Moreover, on sweet pepper, preference values are completely fitted by Murdoch's no-switch line. The findings suggest that morphological defence traits of plants, such as hairy leaves of cucumber, may effectively change prey preference and reduce predation success of O. albidipennis.

The potential egg production and egg viability of the potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella (Zell.) was significantly lowered when moths of either sex were exposed in 250 ml glass jars to vapours of orange peel oil emanating from 160 μ oil. Oviposition and egg hatching was totally inhibited when female moths of both sexes were exposed to 220 μl of the oil.

A survey involving more than 129 farmers was carried out in 1998 and 1999 in Ouémé, Benin, to investigate the importance of pests and diseases as constraints to cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) production. Results indicated that in the Ouémé valley Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. and Aphis craccivora Koch are specific concerns. Weeds such as justicia anselliana (Nees) T. Anders, Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal and Commelina erecta L. were also reported as being troublesome. On the Ouémé plateau Imperata cylindrica L. Beauv. was reported to be a major weed. Callosobruchus maculatus Fab. and Bruchidius atrolineatus Fab. may cause up to 100% loss within a few months in storage. Birds and rodents were also reported. In certain areas on the plateau, farmers have developed pest control methods based on indigenous knowledge. In the valley the population density of Eichhornia crassipes (Mart) Solms. during flooding is used by farmers to predict aphid infestation. A number of plant species used to protect cowpea were reported. In Gbékandji village, natural enemies such as Rhabdepyris sp., Evania sp., and Chelonus sp., were observed. They were rare in the valley, where farmers rely on chemical control. Farmers reported alternative hosts of cowpea pests from the families Fabaceae (eight species), Mimosaceae (two species), Ceasalpiniaceae (five species), Capparidaceae (two species) and Pontederiaceae (one species). Based on the hierarchy of constraints, sustainable integrated pest management technologies are being developed with farmers using a participatory approach.

Sources of information on the biology and ecology of Chilo species are reviewed on a world-wide basis, with emphasis on the major pest species which are stem borers of rice, maize, sugar-cane, sorghum and other cereal crops and grasses. Information on geographical distribution, host plants, general biology, ecology and population dynamics is summarized for the main species, especially for C. partellus (Swinhoe), C. suppressalis (Walker), C. infuscatellus (Snellen), C. sacchariphagus (Bojer), C. auricilius (Dudgeon), C. zacconius Bleszynski and C. agamemnon Bleszynski. Other species are also noted, including C. diffusilineus (de Joannis), C. panici Wang and Sung, C. terrenellus Pagenstecher, C. polychrysus (Meyrick), C. plejadellus Zincken, C. niponella (Thunberg) and C. orichalcociliellus (Strand). Requirements for additional and better organized information are identified.

Aulacophora foveicollis Lucas causes economic losses to creeping cucumber [Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi] growers in India and Bangladesh because adults feed on the leaves and flowers causing death of the plant. The insect is a generalist herbivore as it also causes damage to pumpkin, bottle gourd, sponge-gourd and gac fruit production by feeding on leaves and flowers of these plants. At present, insects are controlled with insecticides, which are harmful to human health and the environment. We studied the behavioural responses of adult A. foveicollis to flower surface waxes and synthetic compounds mimicking flower surface waxes to determine their potential for monitoring this pest. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID) analyses of S. amplexicaulis flower (50 g) surface waxes indicated presence of 17.9 and 3.1 mg alkanes and free fatty acids, respectively. Seventeen n-alkanes from n-C15 to n-C34 and 16 free fatty acids from C10:0 to C22:0 were detected in the flower surface waxes. Heptacosane was predominant among n-alkanes representing 2748.1 µg; whereas, pentadecanoic acid was the major fatty acid accounting for 466.6 µg. Aulacophora foveicollis were attracted to the flower surface waxes at concentrations of 4 to 8 μg/ml, as demonstrated by a Y-tube olfactometer bioassay. Using a dose response bioassay, the insect was shown to be attracted to individual synthetic pentadecane, heptacosane, nonacosane, undecanoic acid and nonadecanoic acid at 0.70, 0.70, 1.20, 1.60 and 1.40 µg/ml, respectively. The insect displayed highest attraction to a synthetic mixture of 0.70, 1.23, 0.77, 0.84, 0.94 and 0.74 µg/ml of pentadecane, heptacosane, nonacosane, undecanoic acid, lauric acid and nonadecanoic acid, respectively, and hence, this combination might be used for insect pest management such as in baited traps.

A study was conducted to investigate whether a lack of pollinators, pollination and therefore, a shortage of fruit set of perennial plants is more likely to occur in overgrazed land than farmland without grazing pressure, as this could have considerable effects on the reproduction of certain plant species. The study was conducted at two adjacent BIOTA biodiversity observatories (<url>www.biota-africa.org</url>) in Namaqualand, South Africa. Individuals of certain plant species of the family of Aizoaceae were measured and flower and fruit production recorded. Malaise traps and transect walks were used to document insect diversity. Preliminary results indicate that not all plant species show reduced flower production but that fruit set is indeed compromised on overgrazed land. Insect diversity and abundance is partially reduced under heavy grazing pressure, especially in locations where the vegetation cover is low and dominated by unpalatable plant species.

In this study, the effect of exposing entomopathogenic bacteria isolated from macerated termite cadavers to varying intensities of a magnetic field for different periods of time on their pathogenic potential was examined; pathogenicity tests were carried out for each of the bacterial species. Two of the bacteria, Bacillus subtilis (Ehrenberg) Cohn and Serratia marcescens Bizio, were able to induce morbid effects on termites and both were re-isolated from the resulting cadavers. Reinfection using different concentrations of both bacteria was carried out on termites to determine the minimum lethal concentration required for pathogenicity. Bacillus subtilis was able to degenerate the termites at concentration values of 108 colony-forming units (cfu)/ml and S. marcescens at 107cfu/ml. Both bacteria were then exposed to magnetic fields of different intensities for different periods of time, after which they were used for reinfection of healthy termites. Post-infection study after the exposure of termites to magnetic field-treated bacterial cells revealed no reduction in the entomopathogenic potency of S. marcescens. As the extensive use of chemicals to control insect pests has been found to have detrimental effects on people and the environment, there is a pressing need to discover and develop new entomopathogens to control these insects biologically. Therefore, bacteria discovered in this study to have entomopathogenic potency against termites may be further studied and formulated into either powdery forms or suspensions to be applied to infested wood or wood products.

The effects of methanol extract of Peganum harmala L. seeds were evaluated against Tribolium castaneum (Herbst). Larval growth was inhibited and food intake reduced when the extract was incorporated into the diet at concentrations of 2.5, 5 and 10%. All doses caused an increase in the duration of larval period and completely inhibited F1 progeny production. The main body metabolites were determined in last-instar larvae after feeding for 8 days on the diet treated with different doses. Protein and lipid contents were decreased with concentrations >2.5%. Glycogen content was reduced at a concentration of 10%. Tribolium castaneum larvae possessed two major and one minor α-amylase isoforms as determined by gel assays. Larvae fed the treated diet presented less activity of the major isoforms, while activity of the minor isoform was totally inhibited. The activity of this enzyme is not inhibited in vitro by seed extracts. Histological studies showed that P. harmala extracts caused a severe cytotoxicity on the epithelial cells of the midgut resulting in marked vacuolization of the cytoplasm and a large intercellular space. These findings suggest that seed extracts of P. harmala exert their toxic effect by severely damaging the midgut epithelial cells. This naturally occurring plant extract could be useful for control of T. castaneum.

Bruchid beetles cause high losses of stored legumes in the tropics. Chemical control is inappropriate for the small scale farmer and the use of alternative measures should be encouraged. Different biological methods of control such as cultural, physical, varietal, biological, biorational and genetic control are reviewed. Cultural control techniques such as timely and frequent harvesting, legumes planted away from granaries, crop hygiene and storage in pods, are within the technical and financial means of the small scale farmer. The use of inert substances, vegetable oils and repellent plants may be cheap and effective if properly managed. The use of controlled atmosphere, vacuum, heating, cooling and sterilizing, requires relatively advanced techniques. Growth regulators and pheromones are currently not available for control. Varieties resistant to bruchids have been identified, but incorporation of resistance into suitable varieties has proven to be difficult. Biological control of bruchids should receive more attention in particular research on the introduction and conservation of natural enemies. To effectively implement control measures at farmer's level socio-economic and cultural aspects should be taken into account. Proven appropriate techniques should be combined in an overall integrated pest management strategy.

The fumigant toxicity, ovicidal and oviposition-deterrent potential of the essential oil of Indian dill, Anethum sowa and its three major fractions against the grain beetle Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) on chickpea were investigated. Two fractions produced 100% mortality of adult beetles at 3.0 μl/ml dosage, whereas the essential oil was the least effective. Fraction III was 100% ovicidal at a 70 μl/ml concentration. The essential oil and fraction III both completely deterred oviposition at the lowest concentration tested, 10 μl/ml. Neither the essential oil nor its fractions had any significant effect on chickpea seed germination.

The searching behaviour of two coccinellid predators, Coccinella transversalis Fab. and Cheilomenes (Menochilus) sexmaculatus Fab. at different hunger levels and larval stage was studied on eggplant infested with Aphis gossypii Glov. Females of both predators required more prey to return to a state of complete satiation. As the period of starvation increased, more aphids were consumed by both the beetles, reaching a maximum at 24 h starvation. In first, second, third and fourth instars of both the predators, the searching time and the number of eggplant leaf veins visited increased with increasing hunger levels. A high positive correlation between searching time and hunger level of tested predators was obtained.

Female sex pheromone components have been identified for seven species of Chilo, pests of cereals and sugar-cane. Synthetic pheromone blends for C. suppressalis, C. sacchariphagus, C. sacchariphagus indicus, C. auricilius and C. zacconius have shown satisfactory attractiveness to male moths in the field. Blends for C. partellus and C. infuscatellus seem to be incomplete. Pheromones and related compounds have been investigated for control of C. suppressalis by mating disruption in the Philippines, Japan, Spain and Korea. These studies have shown not only trap catch reduction, but also reduced viable egg production in field cages and effective control of damage by this pest on areas up to 60 ha. Initial studies have been carried out on control of C. sacchariphagus by mating disruption in Mauritius, and both the pheromone and an inhibitor have been shown to cause trap catch reduction of C. auricilius in India. Attempts have been made to control C. sacchariphagus indicus by mass trapping in India.

Iris yellow spot virus (IYSV) vectored by Thrips tabaci threatens profitable onion production in eastern Africa. Host plant resistance is considered to be the first line of defence against insect-transmitted virus diseases. Hence, information on resistance to IYSV and T. tabaci among common onion cultivars in Kenya is crucial for the development of integrated pest management strategies. This study evaluated the resistance to thrips and IYSV among widely grown onion cultivars in Kenya, viz. Red Pinoy, Red Creole, Bombay Red, Green Bunching and Texas Grano, over two growing seasons. Straw-coloured, diamond-shaped necrotic lesions typical of IYSV infection were observed 2 weeks after transplantation. Observations on thrips numbers per plant, IYSV disease incidence and severity, and virus intensity were undertaken to assess the resistance. Varieties differed significantly with respect to both IYSV disease incidence and thrips numbers per plant from fourth week to physiological maturity. Red Pinoy, Green Bunching and Red Creole were highly susceptible to the virus and thrips, while Texas Grano and Bombay Red were moderately resistant. There were significant differences among the varieties with regard to IYSV intensity, with the highest and the least virus intensity positively correlated with disease severity being recorded in Red Pinoy and Texas Grano, respectively. Among the varieties, Texas Grano produced the highest yield in both seasons, while Red Pinoy produced the least. Hence, Texas Grano and Bombay Red could be recommended as moderately resistant cultivars to thrips and IYSV to be grown in Kenya for markets where pungency is not preferred and preferred, respectively. Regions with high levels of thrips population and IYSV infestation are not suitable for the cultivation of Red Pinoy.

The performance of the Bombyx mori Linnaeus bivoltine hybrid, Shaanshi BV-333, was evaluated on six mulberry cultivars of Morus spp. based on economic characters in rearing and mulberry leaf quality. The growth rate and morphological characteristics for all the cultivars were studied using several parameters. Specific characters such as disease resistance, survival percentage, cocoon weight, cocoon shell weight and single cocoon filament length were recorded during the rearing of silkworm larvae. Tested cultivars significantly differed in all parameters. Cultivars Kanva-2/M5, Thailand, Thika and S-36 exhibited superiority in rearing performance over other tested cultivars. Silkworms fed with cv. Thailand had the highest survival percentage of larvae in the short (S1) and long (S2) rainy seasons as compared with other cultivars. However, cv. Embu produced the lowest mortality during the dry season (S3), while S-41 produced the lowest survival rate in all seasons. Embu had significantly higher filament length and cocoon yield compared with the other cultivars during S3. However, S-41 performed poorly in survival percentage, cocoon yield, silk reeling and cocoon shell weight.

Boophilus microplus is Brazil's outstanding livestock ectoparasitic pest (annual losses, US$ 1B), affecting, to varying extents, all its States, with a national herd of some 130 M cattle. The country's 8.5 M sq km and 23,000 km of land frontier with 10 tick infested countries complicate any concepts of national campaigns. Whereas Brazil is increasingly climatically suitable for B. microplus from south (three generations annually) to central (four) to north (potentially up to five), direct problems caused are incidentally decreased due to greater use of Bos indicus cattle at lower stocking rates; five tick population survival mechanisms are suggested. Voluntary, empirical chemical tick control remains the tradition, with little government involvement. Formamidine and synthetic pyrethroid acaricides dominate the market, due to former tick resistance to arsenicals, organochlorines and organophosphates, and market forces. Plunge dips, various sprayers, and “pour-on” formulations are used; first suspicions of tick resistance to synthetic pyrethroids have been reported. Various ecologically based “improved” tick control schemes produced promising results experimentally, but require a complementary vaccine against babesiosis/anaplasmosis before wide recommendation. Intensive use of synthetic pyrethroid acaricides has created tick-borne diseases and heightened demand for a live, frozen “vaccine”, in its pre-commercialization phase in Brazil. A strategic research and development approach has been adopted for widespread improvement to cattle ticks and tick-borne disease control in Brazil.