The policy-making process for health financing in most places lacks equity, failing to adequately consider the voices of ordinary citizens, residents, and especially those facing significant disadvantage. Procedural fairness is about addressing this imbalance, which requires a recalibration of power dynamics, ensuring that decision-making incorporates a more diverse range of perspectives. In this comment, we highlight the important contributions made by the report ‘Open and inclusive: Fair processes for financing universal health coverage’ in furthering the understanding and importance of procedural fairness in health financing decision-making especially as it relates to the three sub-functions of financing – revenue raising, pooling, and purchasing. We also argue for the importance of conceptual clarity – especially as to the added value of procedural fairness vis-à-vis accountability – and critically review the proposed framework for procedural fairness, emphasising the role of voice as the linchpin to advancing equity in influence.

In many European countries, semi-autonomous agencies have been created in health policy to safeguard general public interests. In executing their tasks, these agencies need to deal with conflicting expectations. Particularly avoiding the risk of regulatory capture and aligning with parent ministries are frequently studied challenges, even more so when complex issues such as scarcity are at stake. In this paper, we use q-methodology to provide a thorough overview of the debate regarding the role of an important agency in the Dutch healthcare system; the National Health Care Institute (Zorginstituut Nederland). We conducted 41 q-interviews with agency employees, evaluators, regulatees, ministry employees, health policy experts, members of its advisory committees, and peer agencies. We identify three viewpoints on what the agency should focus on. These are on societally relevant issues, strict package management, and efficient organisation of care. In doing so, our study shows how agencies are pulled in different directions by conflicting expectations. We show that this can be problematic because it complicates a clear role of the agency that allows addressing such issues. We thereby contribute to theories on agencies' complex relations with their external environment such as regulatory capture, tripartism, reflexive regulation, legal boundaries, and stewardship theory.

The impact of health technologies may extend beyond the patient and affect the health of people in their network, like their informal carers. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) methods guide explicitly allows the inclusion of health-related quality of life (HRQoL) effects on carers in economic evaluations when these effects are substantial, but the proportion of NICE appraisals that includes carer HRQoL remains small. This paper discusses when inclusion of carer HRQoL is justified, how inclusion can be substantiated, and how carer HRQoL can be measured and included in health economic models. Inclusion of HRQoL in economic evaluations can best be substantiated by data collected in (carers for) patients eligible for receiving the intervention. To facilitate combining patient and carer utilities on the benefit side of economic evaluations, using EQ-5D to measure impacts on carers seems the most successful strategy in the UK context. Alternatives to primary data collection of EQ-5D include vignette studies, using existing values, and mapping algorithms. Carer HRQoL was most often incorporated in economic models in NICE appraisals by employing (dis)utilities as a function of the patient's health state or disease severity. For consistency and comparability, economic evaluations including carer HRQoL should present analyses with and without carer HRQoL.

We use Benford's law to examine the non-random elements of health care costs. We find that as health care expenditures increase, the conformity to the expected distribution of naturally occurring numbers worsens, indicating a tendency towards inefficient treatment. Government insurers follow Benford's law better than private insurers indicating more efficient treatment. Surprisingly, self-insured patients suffer the most from non-clinical cost factors. We suggest that cost saving efforts to reduce non-clinical expenses should be focused on more severe, costly encounters. Doing so focuses cost reduction efforts on less than 10% of encounters that constitute over 70% of dollars spent on health care treatment.

In the three years since the law on adult deceased organ donation consent in England changed to include an opt-out system, there has been no discernible change to donation rates. The lack of a positive impact on donation rates was predicted by many of those who took part in debates before and during the passage of the Bill through Parliament. This invites the question as to why England moved to an opt-out system for organ donation despite equivocal evidence of likely benefit and opposition from expert health professional organisations. To address this question qualitative analyses of Parliamentary debates on organ donation was undertaken. This revealed a shift from a dominant position, which gave primacy to the evidence of likely effects, towards a more normative position where a deemed consent option was viewed as the ‘correct thing to do’ and the limited and conflicting evidence viewed in a positive light. By 2017, following Wales's move to an opt-out system, together with continued lobbying for similar changes for England by professional and patient groups, alongside sustained public popularity for organ donation, the balance of opinion had shifted towards a system where deemed consent would become the default position for most English adults

As the world comes together through the WHO design and consultation process on a new medical counter-measures platform, we propose an enhanced APT-A (Access to Pandemic Tools Accelerator) that builds on the previous architecture but includes two new pillars – one for economic assistance and another to combat structural inequalities for future pandemic preparedness and response. As part of the APT-A, and in light of the Independent Panel on Pandemic Preparation & Response's call for an enhanced end-to-end platform for access to essential health technologies, we propose a new mechanism that we call the Pandemic Open Technology Access Accelerator (POTAX) that can be implemented through the medical countermeasures platform and the pandemic accord currently under negotiation through the World Health Assembly and supported by the High-Level Meeting review on Pandemic Prevention, Preparedness, and Response at the United Nations. This mechanism will provide (1) conditional financing for new vaccines and other essential health technologies requiring companies to vest licenses in POTAX and pool intellectual property and other data necessary to allow equitable access to the resulting technologies. It will also (2) support collective procurement as well as measures to ensure equitable distribution and uptake of these technologies.

Many governments employed mandates for COVID-19 vaccines, imposing consequences upon unvaccinated people. Attitudes towards these policies have generally been positive, but little is known about how discourses around them changed as the characteristics of the disease and the vaccinations evolved. Western Australia (WA) employed sweeping COVID-19 vaccine mandates for employment and public spaces whilst the state was closed off from the rest of the country and world, and mostly with no COVID-19 in the community. This article analyses WA public attitudes during the mandate policy lifecycle from speculative to real. Qualitative interview data from 151 adults were analysed in NVivo 20 via a novel chronological analysis anchored in key policy phases: no vaccine mandates, key worker vaccine mandates, vaccine mandates covering 75% of the workforce and public space mandates. Participants justified mandates as essential for border reopening and, less frequently, for goals such as protecting the health system. However, public discourse focusing on ‘getting coverage rates up’ may prove counter-productive for building support for vaccination; governments should reinforce end goals in public messaging (reducing suffering and saving lives) because such messaging is likely to be more meaningful to vaccination behaviour in the longer term.

This article identifies issues relating to the use of genetics and genomics in risk-rated insurance that may challenge existing regulatory models in the UK and elsewhere. We discuss three core issues: (1) As genomic testing advances, and results are increasingly relevant to guide healthcare across an individual's lifetime, the distinction between diagnostic and predictive testing that the current UK insurance code relies on becomes increasingly blurred. (2) The emerging category of pharmacogenetic tests that are predictive only in the context of a specific prescribing moment. (3) The increasing availability and affordability of polygenic scores that are neither clearly diagnostic nor highly predictive, but which nonetheless might have incremental value for risk-rated insurance underwriting beyond conventional factors. We suggest a deliberative approach is required to establish when and how genetic information can be used in risk-rated insurance.

The consequences of legal access to medical marijuana for individuals' well-being are controversially assessed. We contribute to the discussion by evaluating the impact of the introduction of medical marijuana laws across US states on self-reported mental health considering different motives for cannabis consumption. Our analysis is based on BRFSS survey data from close to eight million respondents between 1993 and 2018 that we combine with information from the NSDUH to estimate individual consumption propensities. We find that eased access to marijuana through medical marijuana laws reduce the reported number of days with poor mental health for individuals with a high propensity to consume marijuana for medical purposes and for those individuals who likely suffer from frequent pain.

Health systems’ insurance/funding can be organised in several ways. Some countries have adopted systems with a mixture of public–private involvement (e.g. Australia, Chile, Ireland, South Africa, New Zealand) which creates two-tier health systems, allowing consumers (groups) to have preferential access to the basic standard of care (e.g. skipping waiting times). The degree to which efficiency and equity are achieved in these types of systems is questioned. In this paper, we consider integration of the two tiers by means of a managed competition model, which underpins Social Health Insurance (SHI) systems. We elaborate a two-part conceptual framework, where, first, we review and update the existing pre-requisites for the model of managed competition to fit a broader definition of health systems, and second, we typologise possible roadmaps to achieve that model in terms of the insurance function, and focus on the consequences on providers and governance/stewardship.

This paper explores the keywords of ‘National’, ‘Health’ and Service’ in the road to the NHS in 1948. It uses a form of Qualitative Content Analysis to analyse key documents in the period leading to the ‘Appointed Day’ when the NHS was created in 1948. In terms of ‘national’, most documents favoured Local Authorities, with ‘National’ coming rather late in the day. For ‘health’, most of the documents ‘talk’ of a broad or ‘positive’ health, but they lack any specific details, and seem to focus on a narrower curative medical service. Finally, most proposals relating to ‘service’ are based on insurance and a ‘90% service’, with the free and universal (100%) service arriving rather late in the period. Clearly, the three keywords could be combined in many ways, resulting in many possible types of NHS. However, bringing them together suggests that it was probably only with Beveridge onwards that the three keywords of national, health and service (citizenship) combined to form Bevan's NHS.

The allocation of resources is a crucial part of political decision-making in healthcare, but explicit priorities are rarely set when resources are distributed. Two areas that have received some attention in research about legitimacy and priority-setting decisions in healthcare are the role of technical expert agencies as mediating institutions and the role of elected politicians. This paper investigates a political priority-setting advisory committee within a regional authority in Sweden. The aim is to explore how a political body can serve as a mediating institution for priority-setting in healthcare by disentangling the arrangements of its work in terms of what role it performs in the organisation and what it should do. The findings illustrate that promoting the notion of explicit priority-setting and the political aspects inherent in priority-setting in political healthcare management can contribute to consolidating political governance and leadership. There is, however, a complex tension between stability and conflicting values which has implications for the role of politicians as citizens' democratic representatives. This paper enhances our understanding of the role of mediating institutions and political properties of healthcare priority-setting, as well as our understanding of political and democratic healthcare governance in local self-government.

This paper considers whether and how managed competition arrangements could be introduced into the Aotearoa health and disability system. The paper describes the key features of the system, including new organisational arrangements established from 1 July 2022. It discusses major reforms and managed competition plans that were developed in the 1990s, with the managed competition plans abandoned fairly early on, as a result of major issues with the reforms that had been implemented and with problems in designing a fair payment system for competing health plans. The paper goes on to argue that the development of capitated, risk-bearing and competing Primary Health Organisations set up in the 2000s should be considered in terms of managed competition, and the paper points to the issues that have arisen in Aotearoa due to a lack of regulations that would have better supported the better achievement of effectiveness, efficiency, and equity goals over the past 20 years. Finally, the paper also looks ahead to whether and how managed competition might again be considered in Aotearoa and the extent to which the system currently includes key pre-conditions to support such arrangements.

The management implications of pricing healthcare services, especially hospitals, have received insufficient scholarly attention. Additionally, disciplinary overlaps have led to scattered academic efforts in this domain. This study performs a thematic synthesis of the literature and applies retrospective analysis to hospital service pricing articles to address these issues. The study's inputs were sourced from well-known online repositories, using a structured search string and PRISMA flow chart to select the pertinent documents. Our thematic analysis of pricing literature encompasses: (a) comprehension of hospital service pricing nature; (b) pricing objectives, strategies and practices differentiation; (c) presentation of factors impacting hospital service pricing. We observe that hospital pricing is an intricate and unclear matter. The terms ‘pricing strategies’ and ‘pricing practices’ are often used interchangeably in academic literature. Hospital service pricing is influenced by costs, demand and supply factors, market structure, pricing regulation and third-party reimbursements. The study's findings provide policy implications for service pricing in hospitals, in addition to suggesting avenues for future research on hospital pricing.

This article discusses the results and prospects of the market reform in Dutch health care which came into force in 2006. Attention is paid to the results of the health insurance reform, the experience with the shift from passive to active purchasing and the impact of the reform on healthcare provision and cost control respectively. Other topics discussed are the consequences of the reform for administrative costs, institutional trust in health insurance, and the power balance in health care after reform. The central message is that the high expectations of the market reform have not come true. Dutch health care features a high degree of hybridity and there are indications that the system is becoming ever more hybrid: the system operates much less market-like than the market frame suggests. Currently, the policy narrative on the reform is changing. Policymakers and policy documents underscore the need for cooperation in provider networks and more state direction. The Dutch experience with health care reform illustrates the pendulum theory. After a period of a belief in competition and less state direction the pendulum in policymaking swings back to a belief in cooperation and a pro-active role of the state.

The Australian health system is characterised by high quality care by international standards, produced by a mix of public and private provision and funding of healthcare services. Despite good overall results, three issues are of concern. The first issue relates to the public procurement of healthcare, whose flaws have impacted individuals' access to care, and the high out-of-pocket spending. The second issue concerns the sustainability of the private health insurance market, given the government's goal of relieving cost and capacity from the public scheme, incentivising participation. Third, there are existing inefficiencies and inequities related to the duplication resulting from the interaction between public and private schemes. To ensure a sustainable, efficient and equitable health system, structural reforms are necessary to achieve long-term performance improvements. Using a framework for mixed public–private health systems, we assess the extent to which the Australian healthcare system achieves preconditions for efficiency and affordability in competitive healthcare markets.

Managed competition frameworks aim to control healthcare costs and promote access to high-quality health insurance and services through a combination of public policies and market forces. In the United States, managed competition delivery systems are varied and diffused across a patchwork of divided markets and populations. This, coupled with extremely high national health spending per capita, makes a more unified managed competition strategy an appealing alternative to a currently struggling healthcare system. We examine the relative effectiveness of three existing programmes in the U.S. that each rely upon some principles of managed competition: health insurance exchanges instituted by the Affordable Care Act, Medicaid managed care organisations, and Medicare Advantage plans. Although each programme leverages some competitive features, each faces significant hurdles as a candidate for expansion. We highlight these challenges with a survey of academic health economists, and find that provider and insurer consolidation, highly segmented markets, and failing to incentivise competitive efficiencies all dampen the success of existing programmes. Although managed competition for all is a potentially desirable framework for future health reform in the U.S., successful expansion relies on addressing fundamental issues revealed by imperfect existing programmes.

South Africa offers universal health coverage through large public and private systems. The private system is characterised by a regulated market for health insurance, referred to domestically as medical schemes. From 2000, the private system was undergoing a reform process consistent with theoretical approaches for regulated competition for health insurance. However, from 2008, the reform process was interrupted, leaving in place a partial framework which included open enrolment, community rating and regulated minimum benefits but excluded, inter alia, risk equalisation. The incomplete reform, however, provides an opportunity to examine the system outcomes that result from a partial approach. This paper therefore reviews the system outcomes of the partial reform using a descriptive data analysis. The findings then inform an evaluation of the extent to which the preconditions for regulated competition have been met as indicated by the theory of regulated competition in healthcare. The paper therefore highlights the areas where regulatory interventions need to be prioritised in South Africa to achieve the objectives of regulatory competition that are able to achieve access, fairness and efficiency. The analysis points to significant failures at the level of health insurance competition in South Africa with resulting outcomes consistent with the theory of regulated competition.

Systems of managed competition naturally seek the middle ground between competition and regulation. This debate essay makes the case for adjusting the level of regulation according to the characteristics of the submarket in question. We first develop a theoretical framework that can be used to identify the services in which relatively free competition will be beneficial. The framework is grounded in the economic literature and consists of eight criteria. Targeted regulatory tools are then discussed that can be used to structure submarkets in which these criteria are not (fully) met. Applying this framework and targeted interventions, regulators gain the flexibility to react to potential market failures, without foregoing the benefits of managed competition where it works well. This analysis is highly relevant for countries in transition to managed competition. Regulators can identify potential failure in submarkets for medical services, and apply the necessary regulatory tools to prepare for a smooth transition.

This article examines the effect of information and communication technologies (ICT) and democracy on early child health using data from 51 African countries. We first specify and estimate a panel data model using ordinary least squares and two-stage least squares over the period 2001–2019. We apply the Hodrick–Prescott filter before analysis. Our results show that the extension of mobile phone use significantly contributes to the improvement of early child health in Africa. This effect is indifferent to the state or the level of democracy. Also, the internet diffusion plays a positive role in early child health when the democracy environment improves and becomes better. We suggest policies in favour of a large access to ICT tools and internet infrastructure as well as the promotion of democracy in Africa to better prevent infant mortality.