Up until now, no subclassification of affective psychoses has been validated biologically. This follows unavoidably from a research practice of defining diagnostic subtypes in consensus conferences and only thereafter allowing their validation. There is evidence that electroencephalograms (EEG) may be a useful tool in psychiatry, provided that the relevant information is extracted.

Our EEG quantification procedure aims at an assessment of both the amount and range of variation of spontaneous changes of topographical alpha-power distribution, developing within a certain period of recording under resting conditions. Our measures were designed to characterize the dynamic organization of the EEG. This is quite obviously an eyeball evaluation but it has nevertheless been neglected in research. The study design was done retrospectively. Included were inpatients with a primary depressive disorder. Main exclusion criteria were an age older than 62 years and psychotropic drugs other than antidepressants. The psychopathology and other clinical data were routinely assessed within three days after admission by the AMDP documentation. An EEG was also routinely performed at admission. We made use of robust, generally known non-parametric statistics.

Those patients who exhibited a dynamically rigid EEG are especially prone to recurrences, have a relative late onset of their illness, and show an acute symptomatology characterized by organic-like features.

The findings lend support to our contention that the quantitative assessment of the dynamics of the EEG-Gestalt allows the delimitation of a clinically important subtype that is characterized both cross-sectionally and in long-term respects.

The goal of this prospective investigation was to study the course and the quality of patient-psychiatrist relationships during phase II / phase III clinical trials of antidepressant medication prescribed for depressive disorders. All patients who participated in the clinical trials (and subsequently in this survey) signed written informed consent statements and were subject to random double blind treatment assignment. Retrospective analysis of 118 investigations was carried out, and the patients involved were questioned concerning their experiences and impressions during and after the study. Data show that the outcome of clinical trials of antidepressant drugs are not a function of pre-existing good patient-psychiatrist relationships. On the other hand, no effects on the patient-psychiatrist relationship were found as a result of the experimental procedure, and it can be concluded that no detrimental effects on future patient-psychiatrist relationships were incurred.

Epidemiological studies, animal studies, and clinical studies yielded conflicting results concerning a supposed association between increased risk for suicide and violence, and low serum cholesterol levels. Until now, no data has been available for patients with schizophrenia, a disorder with a well-known increased risk of violence. Correlations of serum cholesterol levels at admission and measures of violence were investigated in 103 consecutively admitted patients (44 males, 59 females) of a general psychiatric admission unit. Seventy subjects were diagnosed as suffering from schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder (ICD-10 F 20, F25), and 33 were diagnosed as suffering from non-psychotic disorders (mainly personality disorders). The level of total exhibited violence during the inpatient treatment period was measured in each patient by the Modified Overt Aggression Scale (MOAS), the Social Dysfunction and Aggression Scale (SDAS), the Staff Observation Aggression Scale (SOAS), and the Violence Scale (VS). Correlations of all violence measures were high (0.75–0.90), but no correlation was found with cholesterol levels, neither for psychotic nor for non-psychotic subjects, neither for men nor for women. The hypothesis of associations of violence and cholesterol levels is not supported by the data.

Psychotic bipolar depression was compared with nonpsychotic bipolar depression. Psychotic (n = 59) and nonpsychotic (n = 176) bipolar depressed outpatients were SCID-DSM-IV interviewed. Psychotic bipolar depression had significantly higher severity, more chronicity, fewer atypical features and axis I co-morbidity, more bipolar I, and fewer bipolar II patients. Age at onset, duration of illness, gender, and recurrences, were not significantly different.

A simulation model based on the theory of clinical decision analysis was used to compare outcomes and costs when treating patients with major depressive episodes using either a selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor (SSRI) or a tricyclic antidepressant (TCA), in comparison with milnacipran (a serotonin), and a norepinephrine re-uptake inhibitor (SNRI). The clinical data used were taken from published meta-analyses. This analysis supports: (1) a comparable efficacy of milnacipran and TCA with a better tolerance; and, (2) an advantage of milnacipran over SSRI for efficacy with a comparable tolerance. Based on these findings, a decision tree was constructed with the assistance of a panel of psychiatrists in order to provide a model of usual clinical practice. Estimates not available from clinical studies were obtained either from literature analysis or from the panel.

Economic appraisal was performed according to the viewpoint of the French national sickness fund (sécurité sociale), and expenditure assessment was limited to direct costs (hospitalizations, antidepressant medications, visits, and laboratory tests). The results suggest that milnacipran is a cost-effective alternative: the expected cost of treatment per depressive episode is lower than either a French representative panel of TCAs (a saving of 288 FF), or SSRIs (a savings of 961 FF). The expected length of clinical remission is slightly higher than comparators. The robustness of these findings was supported by sensitivity analyses.

In a previous study of 15 panic patients, we demonstrated that body-related (somatic) word stimuli elicited an enhanced positive cortical slow wave compared to non-somatic word stimuli. Healthy controls did not show this difference. The present paper reports on psychometric ratings in relation to cortical slow waves in these patients. Patients were clinically reexamined after about 1.5 years. Although no significant correlations between neurophysiology and psychometric measures could be found at the onset of the study, there was a significant correlation between improvement over the follow-up period and neurophysiology. A decline in the Hamilton Anxiety Scale (HAMA), which proved to be the best estimate for improvement, was associated with the relative magnitude of the positive slow wave elicited by somatic stimuli. Our findings support cognitive models of panic disorder, which stress that abnormal processing of bodily symptoms is relevant for the development and/or maintenance of the disorder.

Depression is associated with considerable morbidity and mortality. As depressive disorders carry a high risk of relapse, treatment strategies include the use of a 6-month continuation period after resolution of the acute episode. Tolerability is of major importance when determining compliance and outcome during long-term therapy. Due to the superior tolerability profile of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) over the older tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), the former may be more suitable for extended therapy. Comparative studies have not shown differences between the SSRIs in terms of efficacy, but side-effect profiles may vary. A multicenter, double-blind, comparative study of sertraline and fluoxetine was carried out in outpatients fulfilling DSM-III-R criteria for major depressive disorder. Patients were randomised to receive sertraline (50—150 mg, n = 118) or fluoxetine (20—60 mg, n = 120) for 24 weeks. Assessments for depression (HAM-D, HAD, CGI-I, CGI-S), anxiety (Covi), sleep (Leeds Sleep Evaluation scale) and quality of life (SIP) were made at study entry and at weeks 2, 4, 8, 12, 18 and 24. All adverse events were recorded to allow evaluation of tolerability. In total, 88 patients in the sertraline group completed the study compared with 79 in the fluoxetine group. Side effects were responsible for the premature treatment withdrawal of seven (6%) sertraline patients and 12 (10%) fluoxetine patients. Two-hundred and thirty-four patients were included in an ITT analysis up to last visit (116 sertraline, 118 fluoxetine). At study endpoint, both treatments produced a significant improvement over baseline on all efficacy variables (P < 0.001). Although the magnitude of global changes in depression, anxiety, and quality of life was larger with sertraline than fluoxetine, none of the between-group differences reached statistical significance. However, significant differences in favour of sertraline were observed for individual HAM-D items including item 4 (insomnia onset) (P = 0.04), item 9 (agitation) (P = 0.02), and item 13 (general somatic symptoms) (P = 0.008). In addition, sertraline was associated with significantly superior performance on the Leeds Sleep Evaluation scale and on SIP items relating to sleep and rest, emotional behaviour and ambulation. Both sertraline and fluoxetine were well tolerated with no significant differences between treatments.

The objective of this study was to provide a reliable instrument to measure morningness for upcoming studies in French samples, using the Composite Scale of Morningness (CSM), which has been translated into French. Nursing students (n = 356) completed the questionnaire between February and March 1997. The total score obtained was independent of age and gender, and normally distributed. The reliability was high (Cronbach's α = 0.85), and factorial analysis confirmed the unidimensionality of the scale. Evening-type subjects are thought to score under 31, and morning-type subjects are thought to score above 44. As an external validation, morningness was associated, on weekdays and weekends, with early rising times and bedtimes and early peak times of physical and mental performance. In conclusion, we found that the English and the French versions of the Composite Scale of Morningness gave identical results. The scale is reliable and can be used for French-speaking adult samples. Nevertheless, normative data and other external validity criteria are needed.

Greece joined the European Community in 1981 and, three years later, the Commission of the European Communities provided financial and technical assistance under EEC Regulation 815/84 for the modernisation of the traditional psychiatric care system, with the emphasis on decentralisation of mental health services and the development of community-based services, as well as on deinstutionalization of long-stay patients and improvement of conditions in public mental hospitals. Over the last 11 years, the implementation of the EEC Reg. 815/84 programme contributed to a significant shift towards extramural care and rehabilitation. The role of the large mental hospitals has gradually been diminished and a large number of long-stay patients have been deinstitutionalised. It is commonly accepted that the EEC-funded psychiatric reform programme, despite inadequacies and constraints, had an impact on the changing mental health scene in Greece.

Diagnosis of a serious somatic condition may precipitate a seven stage coping process: shock, denial, procrastination, bargaining, depression, anger and adaptation. Psychometric/statistical methods for operationalizing the stages are suggested.

In order to test the hypothesis that an excess of summer births is a risk factor for deficit syndrome, the month of birth was studied in 53 deficit schizophrenic patients compared to 158 non-deficit patients. No significant difference in terms of month of birth or season of birth was observed between deficit and non-deficit patients, suggesting that summer births might not be a risk factor for deficit schizophrenia.

This study examines whether ward atmosphere, aggressive behavior, and sexual molestation will change after severely disturbed patients have been distributed over several wards determined by their place of residence, instead of concentrating them in locked single-sex wards. Four wards for predominantly psychotic patients were investigated with the German version of the Ward Atmosphere Scale (WAS), and some further questions about the observation of aggressive behavior and sexual molestation once before and twice after internal sectorisation, partial ward opening, and mixing the sexes were asked. Questionnaires (345: 162 staff members, 183 patients) were evaluated. After the structural changes, a significant improvement of ward atmosphere and a reduction of aggressive behavior was found on average in all wards, whereas the impact on sexual molestation remained unclear. Internal sectorisation and sex integration policy, resulting in distributing rather than concentrating severely disturbed patients, have beneficial effects on the social climate of acute wards.

We investigated the comparative efficacy of citalopram vs. citalopram administered with clomipramine, in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).

Sixteen adult outpatients participated in a 90-day, randomized, open-label trial. Eligible patients were aged 18 to 45 years, had moderate to severe DSM-III-R OCD of ≥ one year's duration, a baseline Yale-Brown scale (Y-BOCS) score of ≥ 25 and no other active axis I diagnosis, and had failed adequate clomipramine and fluoxetine trials.

The citalopram-plus-clomipramine group (n = 9) experienced a significantly larger percent decrease in mean Y-BOCS score by day 90 than the citalopram alone group (n = 7). Only one citalopram patient decreased her score by ≥ 35%, and two by ≥ 25%. All nine citalopram-plus-clomipramine patients experienced decreases of 35%. Side effects were mild to moderate in both groups. We also treated with citalopram six OCD patients who had not tolerated fluoxetine alone and clomipramine alone; three achieved Y-BOCS score decreases of ≥ 35% at 90 days.

Since citalopram does not significantly affect clomipramine metabolism, the improvement in the combined drug group is unlikely to have resulted from increased plasma clomipramine levels. Double-blind controlled trials are needed of citalopram in OCD, and of combining citalopram with clomipramine in treatment-resistant OCD.

This study estimated the cost-effectiveness of mirtazapine, compared to amitriptyline and fluoxetine, in the management of moderate and severe depression in Austria, as well as the costs related to the discontinuation of antidepressant treatment from the perspective of the Austrian Sick Funds (Gebietskrankenkassen).

The economic analyses were based on a meta-analysis of four randomised clinical trials comparing mirtazapine with amitriptyline, and on a six week comparative trial of mirtazapine and fluoxetine which was extrapolated to six months using assumptions derived from the literature. Decision models of the treatment paths and associated resource use attributable to managing moderate and severe depression in Austria were developed from clinical trial data, information on Austrian clinical practice obtained from interviews with an Austrian Delphi panel (comprising psychiatrists and GPs), and from published literature. The models were used to estimate the expected costs to the Gebietskrankenkassen of managing a patient with moderate or severe depression, and the indirect cost per patient to Austrian society due to lost productivity.

The expected cost to the Gebietskrankenkassen of healthcare resource use attributable to managing a patient suffering from moderate or severe depression who discontinues antidepressant treatment was estimated to be ATS 4,088 over five months, of which hospitalisations accounted for nearly 69% of the cost.

Using mirtazapine instead of amitriptyline for 28 weeks increases the proportion of successfully treated patients by 21% (from 19.2 to 23.2%), and reduces the expected cost to the Gebietskrankenkassen by ATS 1,112 per patient (from ATS 31,411 to ATS 30,299). Patients treated with mirtazapine and amitriptyline for 28 weeks are expected to miss 4.76 and 5.01 weeks of work respectively, due to their depression. Hence, the expected indirect cost to Austrian society over this period was estimated to be ATS 58,787 and ATS 61,851 per patient respectively.

Using mirtazapine instead of fluoxetine for six months increases the proportion of successfully treated patients by 22% (from 15.6 to 19.1%), albeit for a negligible additional cost to the Gebietskrankenkassen of ATS 408 per patient (from ATS 29,205 to ATS 29,613). Patients treated with mirtazapine and fluoxetine for six months are expected to miss 4.53 weeks of work, due to their depression. Hence, the expected indirect cost to Austrian society due to lost productivity was estimated to be ATS 55,900 per patient with either antidepressant.

In conclusion, this study suggests that despite the differences in acquisition costs, mirtazapine is a cost-effective antidepressant compared to amitriptyline and fluoxetine, supporting the adoption of this treatment in the management of moderate and severe depression in Austria.

Computed tomography studies concerning pineal calcification (PC) in schizophrenia have been conducted mainly by one author who correlated this calcification with several aspects of the illness. On the basis of these findings the aim of the present study was to analyze size and incidence of pineal gland calcification by CT in schizophrenics and healthy controls, and to verify the relationship between pineal calcification and age, and the possible correlation with psychopathologic variables. Pineal calcification was measured on CT scans of 87 schizophrenics and 46 controls divided into seven age subgroups of five years each. No significant differences in PC incidence and mean size between patients and controls were observed as far as the entire group was considered. PC size correlated with age both in schizophrenics and controls. We found a higher incidence of PC in schizophrenics in the age subgroup of 21–25 years, and a negative correlation with positive symptoms of schizophrenia in the overall group. These findings could suggest a premature calcific process in schizophrenics and a probable association with `non-paranoid' aspects of the illness. Nevertheless the potential role of this process possibly related to some aspects of the altered neurodevelopment in schizophrenia is still unclear.

In a small (n = 15) clinically heterogeneous group of patients with dementia of the Alzheimer-type or vascular dementia, abnormally high frequency of saccadic intrusions during fixation was significantly correlated to the Mini-Mental-State-Examination (MMSE) scores. In addition, the latency of saccades and hypometric saccades also correlated significantly to MMSE-scores. The results point to the possible use of saccadic eye movement as a physiological marker of cognitive performance.