Land contamination imposes a wide variety of different types of financial, environmental, and social costs, some of which may be experienced by individuals and organizations located far from any brownfield sites. The better these diverse costs are understood and recognized, the more prepared public sector managers will be to make choices about economic development efforts and other subsidies that may minimize them. This article examines two distinct sets of costs, which need to be compared with respect to how they accrue to the citizens of different political units so that decision makers can determine their most appropriate courses of action: (1) status quo costs& mdash; those associated with not mitigating and redeveloping brownfields, including lost real estate and business tax revenues, decreasing densities and their costs, and the public health and pollution mitigation costs associated with ignoring sources of contamination; and (2) mitigation costs — those associated with redevelopment efforts, including site assessments, actual mitigations, redevelopment, and possible post–remediation monitoring and maintenance. In both instances, I disaggregate costs and point to some of the less direct impacts and spillover effects that need to be considered. I then consider the parties that may be likely to bear these economic burdens — and highlight the fact that even urban brownfields are not exclusively a “city problem.” I conclude with evidence from the public record on the efficiency of brownfield subsidies, and review the economic rationale for public sector brownfield programs as a key element of economic development efforts.

Shale gas exploration involving hydraulic fracturing (fracking) has been on South Africa’s energy agenda since 2010 as a potential alternative to coal. Internationally, the desirability of fracking has been under debate, due to increasing evidence of associated environmental and health risks. There is limited research related to the public’s knowledge and risk perceptions of fracking, and none whatsoever from South Africa. This cross-sectional study explored, through a household survey, knowledge of, health risk perceptions of, and information sources related to fracking of 102 Central Karoo residents. Our results indicated that 40% of the participants do not know what fracking is or the potential risks and benefits thereof. The media is participants’ main information source (59.8%), and only half of the participants trust their information sources. Those with more trust in their information sources perceived fracking as posing a greater risk. Those believing fracking poses a low risk were more likely to trust the government and oil and gas companies. More than half of the participants (52.9%) believe that fracking poses an extreme health risk, and 78% think that fracking will harm their health. Despite this, 45% of the participants indicated a willingness to work in the fracking industry. The most commonly listed reasons for why fracking would make Karoo residents sick included water pollution (47.4%) and air pollution (19.6%). This study found high levels of risk uncertainty related to fracking among Central Karoo residents.

Environmental Practice 18: 53–68 (2016)

Citizen participation and the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) both have long and storied histories in environmental practice. Arnstein's ladder for citizen participation depicts a continuum of possibilities for public involvement in land-use planning, with nonparticipation at one extreme and full control at the other. This typology was published in 1969, but examples across the full spectrum can still be found in land-use and environmental planning today. The National Environmental Policy Act, enacted one year after publication of Arnstein's article, requires public involvement for environmental assessments of all federal actions significantly affecting the quality of the human environment. We employ Arnstein's typology to evaluate citizen participation in decisions about habitat protection in northern New York. This area has been identified as a critical location in the eastern North American flyway for migratory waterfowl. Initiatives to protect habitat reflected little public involvement before the implementation of NEPA, but substantial involvement afterwards. Before NEPA, residents were simply informed of agency actions. After NEPA, citizen participation caused a land acquisition plan to be withdrawn and replaced by a voluntary partnership program. Recently, a second acquisition proposal also was suspended, in part as a consequence of citizen input. These case studies demonstrate how citizens have utilized NEPA to participate in environmental decision making.

Environmental Practice 10:140–151 (2008)

Shale gas development brings substantial and long-term change to rural landscapes, change that most citizens recognize by what they see—heavier traffic on the highway, pipeline right-of-ways at the skyline, and what they experience as a result of lost forest cover—fewer songbirds at the feeder, cloudier streams when it rains. This paper focuses on facilitating citizens’ ability to participate in the design and planning of large-scale changes to the landscape. In the absence of clear federal or state oversight, the leasing choices of individual citizen landowners and the gas industry are the land planning instruments affecting shale gas development. For citizen landowners, the visual consequences of change may be key to determining what is acceptable or unacceptable development. In a series of studies, the authors projected the areal land-use change resulting from access roads and pipelines that would be needed to support projections of gas development in North-eastern Pennsylvania. The authors identified planning scenarios derived from those projections and represented them as photo-renderings and GIS-based informational graphics. The TR-55 runoff calculator was used to estimate the impact on downstream flooding and a regression model of perceived visual quality to assess visual impacts and also represented these outputs graphically. All of these products were used in land-use planning workshops for citizens enrolled in a Community Science Volunteer program for informal science education of adults. This paper examines the evaluations of participants in the programs including citizens’ acquisition of new knowledge about land planning, their comprehension of planning principles, and their feelings of empowerment to engage in community and county-wide planning. While the number of respondents is restricted to the limited numbers attending community events, in all cases responses indicate the usefulness of our extensive use of visual representation and visual evaluation in interpreting land-use planning options available to citizens in these highly contested land-use scenarios.

Environmental Practice 17: 245–255 (2015)

Michigan is widely recognized as having one of the most innovative programs for converting brownfields into productive uses. The state provides a number of financial incentives along with suspension of retroactive liability for prospective developers. Michigan also has among the greatest number of brownfields of any state. The sheer number of sites and locations throughout the state, the cost of acquisition and cleanup, and the amount of information needed to make a reasoned decision and complete the necessary permits can make the choice of candidate sites difficult. A method to differentiate among potential sites for selection is clearly necessary. In this paper, a Brownfield Site Ranking Model is proposed for selecting sites for potential redevelopment. This process identifies 11 siting criteria derived from the review of general siting factors that can be evaluated in locating a business on a formerly used site. Such factors include commercial marketing guidelines, financial incentives, environmental regulatory compliance requirements, regional infrastructure and labor resources, and local community acceptance. These factors were integrated into a conventional, step-by-step, site identification and selection process using a multi-tiered, weighted procedure. The process was developed in cooperation with the Brownfield Redevelopment Authority of Jackson County and was tested on several prospective commercial and industrial sites. Results suggest a high degree of correlation between site characteristics and likely end uses and argue for a selection process that allows participation by local governments. The complete process, which can be computerized and adapted to a geographic information system, provides a model for commercial developers, real estate brokers, siting consultants, and local communities in selecting target sites for redevelopment.

The destruction of natural resources is a recurring feature of warfare. Indeed, throughout recorded history, environmental destruction has been used as a deliberate military strategy, and wartime actions affecting the environment constitute some of the most serious discrete instances of humanity's impact on the world's ecosystems. In this commentary, we consider the environmental consequences of warfare, with particular attention to the recent ecological disasters in Kuwait and in the former Yugoslavia. Armed conflicts are still raging worldwide, creating both immediate human tragedy and long-term ecological consequences. The authors argue that legitimizing the concept of environmental crime is an important part of establishing accountability and of providing appropriate recompense for acts of war. We propose that the principle of sustainability, and the right to environmental justice are the most pertinent basis for defining environmental crime. On this basis, we offer a core definition of the features of an environmental crime, and we call upon international leaders to assist in the establishment of legal frameworks that are adequate to address such crimes.

Since its release in 1996, ISO 14001 has emerged as the leading voluntary system for certifying a firm's commitment to environmental management. By using India as a case example, this article examines the benefits and limitations of ISO 14001 in improving the environmental performance of firms in developing nations. By overlaying an analysis of the standard with the experiences of knowledgeable stakeholders in India, we examine (a) possible motivations driving Indian firms to pursue ISO 14001 certification, (b) the value of ISO 14001 certification in encouraging firms to improve their environmental performance, and (c) the potential role of ISO 14001 as a regulatory tool. In the end, we conclude that the value of ISO 14001 certification is intimately connected to the quality of the certification process as well as the effectiveness of the local regulatory system. Furthermore, its main value appears to lie in the positive effects associated with a well-implemented environmental management system, which improves a firm's ability to comply with environmental regulations consistently and efficiently over the long term.

Environmental Practice 10:53–65 (2008)

Land degradation and desertification have become complex environmental, social, and economic concerns in Ghana owing to decline in agricultural productivity, loss of biodiversity, and forced out-migration from degraded lands to cities in search of jobs or to rural forested communities for farming, resulting in further deforestation. In an attempt to address these complex land degradation and desertification problems, particularly in the northern areas of Ghana, land degradation was assessed in six major ecological zones of Sudan savanna, Guinea savanna, forest transition, moist semi-deciduous forest, evergreen forest, and coastal savanna. The objectives of the assessment were to: (a) analyze current satellite images to document land degradation, (b) model trends of land degradation, and (c) create a desertification hazard map for Ghana. Land degradation was modeled by using ArcGIS 9.3; satellite image analysis was conducted by using ERDAS Imagine software. Land degradation indicator data layers were soil, vegetation, climate, and land management data. The Modified Mediterranean Desertification and Land Use Model was adapted to model desertification and land degradation, which resulted in the production of a land degradation risk map for Ghana. In addition to the modeling, satellite image based land cover classification results from 2000 to 2008 showed evidence of approximately 880.006 sq km of land degradation in Ghana.

Environmental Practice 17: 3–15 (2015)

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 2004. UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 208 pp. $20 paperback.

The United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) held its 22nd Governing Council in early 2003 and decided at that meeting to prepare an annual Global Environmental Outlook statement. The statement's purpose is to “highlight significant environmental events and achievements during the year and raise awareness of emerging issues from scientific research and other sources,” according to Klaus Topfer, the Executive Director of UNEP. This slim yet useful Yearbook is the Program's response to that decision. Its primary goal is to make new environmental information accessible in a timely fashion and bridge gaps between environmental science and policy. After an explanatory preface, UNEP sets forth a global overview followed by a series of chapters that are geographically focused.

natural resource management is squarely situated in a political context in which stakeholders claim the right to participate in policy dialogues. awareness of the social control frames stakeholders bring to an environmental dispute can guide managers in their attempts to achieve more legitimate agreements. in many cases, views of social control are important in explaining differences among disputants' attitudes toward the legitimacy of agreements. by understanding how conflict participants make use of social control frames, managers can work with, rather than against, those participants to craft a legitimate agreement. after summarizing the characteristics of a legitimate agreement, this article suggests how natural resource managers can increase the likelihood that participants will perceive an agreement as legitimate, by understanding the social control frames disputants bring to a situation and then incorporating salient aspects of these frames into the conflict management process.

This article evaluates fishermen's knowledge about the value of mangrove to fish stock and discusses possible management practices to help restore fish stock within the Fosu Lagoon, Ghana. The lagoon was recently added to the list of water bodies with dead zones, raising concern for the people who depend on it for both sustenance and livelihood. The methodology includes in-depth interviews and surveys. Feedback was collected from 120 fishermen representing the different communities that fish the lagoon. Findings did include that fishermen indicated they have some knowledge about mangroves in general and specifically their value to fishing. However, they lack knowledge about the scientific information to manage these mangroves properly to derive the complete benefits that mangroves provide. With its importance to the livelihood of the fishermen and the traditional heritage of the Cape Coast (Ghana) community as a whole, Fosu Lagoon should be the object of more in-depth studies to help restore the fishery resources. This article provides baseline information for developing educational programs to educate the people about the economic, ecological value, and functions of mangroves. The report analyzes one of the obstacles—depletion of mangroves—leading to decline in fish resources in the lagoon. Based on the knowledge of the fishermen, the article provides some recommendations for better management of the lagoon to help reverse fish decline. This work is original, as no such analysis has been carried out before for this region.

Environmental Practice 12:202–213 (2010)

Scientists overwhelmingly agree that the climate is changing and that the changes are largely due to increased levels of carbon emissions into the atmosphere that are caused by human activities. The recommended response from society to climate change involves two sets of activities: mitigation and adaptation. Adaptation includes activities that attempt to adjust or respond to changes to the environment caused by climate change. For wildlife, a consensus is forming around an approach to adaptation planning that would improve the ability of an ecosystem to resist dramatic changes to habitats; build resilience into the ecosystem to recover from extreme weather events and changes in temperature and precipitation that may cause increased floods, wildfires, insect outbreaks, etc.; and lastly build realignment into our ecosystems through wildlife corridors or other connections through matrix landscape types that allow species to shift their ranges and transition into new areas when the need becomes inevitable. This commentary outlines a climate change adaptation strategy for wildlife within an eight-state region (Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Wisconsin, Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, and Ohio) of the Midwest United States (US) focused on the design of an interconnected green infrastructure network of natural areas that helps refine future wildlife habitat conservation priorities while also providing other natural and human benefits to residents of the Midwest US. A landscape-scale green infrastructure network will be developed for this area within the next 18–24 months thanks to a grant from the US Fish and Wildlife Service to the eight Midwest states, and the strategy outlined here serves as the foundation for implementing effective wildlife habitat protection projects in response to climate change.

Environmental Practice 14:45–56 (2012)

In response to growing concerns about the impact of shale gas development, Pennsylvania's Act 13 of 2012 established an unconventional gas well fee and required the state's Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) to report on the number of such wells. In this article, we analyze the extent to which the DEP complied with its reporting requirements under Act 13. Using publicly available data, we find that the DEP likely omitted between 15,300 and 25,100 unconventional gas wells from its Act 13 report. Left uncorrected, we estimate that Pennsylvania's state, county, and municipal governments could forfeit fees of $205–$303 million in 2012 and up to $0.75–$1.85 billion cumulatively over the expected life of these wells. Rather than an isolated incident, evidence suggests that information management is a systemic and recurring problem within the DEP and its predecessor agencies. We propose the implementation of a relational database and geographic information system as a way for the DEP to fulfill its Act 13 obligations.

Environmental Practice 14:262–277 (2012)

Many environmental professionals are reluctant to interact with the media, often because of a negative experience and the perception that poor coverage can affect environmental programs and policies. Using a case study of media coverage related to the Albuquerque, New Mexico, water supply, this research documents that indeed, the media can influence public opinion and this can have policy and program implications. This research compared media coverage about various water customers (residential, commercial, institutional, industry) to public perceptions about who uses the most water and to actual use levels reported by the city. The results show that coverage in terms of numbers of articles, article content and language, as well as page placement, correlates with public perceptions about which customers use the most water, and that these perceptions do not well match actual use levels. A key point for this work is that although the information presented within the individual articles was largely accurate, it was the pool of coverage assessed as a whole that misrepresented water use levels. This report also provides key steps that environmental professionals can take to help improve overall coverage and help raise the potential for public perception to better match actual data.

Environmental regulatory agencies are an important element in regulatory policy design and its implementation. In this regard, it is incumbent on them to enforce and monitor environmental regulations, as increased monitoring and inspections can increase compliance. The research presented here has identified a number of factors that impede effective monitoring and enforcement by environmental regulatory institutions in Ghana. I also propose that direct external control and the threat of punishment by regulatory agencies are not the sole mechanisms that motivate regulated organizations to work toward the attainment of environmental goals and objectives. In some instances, regulated organizations implement a policy of voluntary compliance in the service of their committed objectives. Furthermore, the watchdog behavior of local communities plays a crucial role in sensitizing mining firms about the impact of their activities on the environment. In this study, in addition to voluntary compliance, traditional authorities and other informal organizations have been effective in controlling and ensuring environmental compliance by mining organizations.

Co-management is an innovative approach for managing the natural environment and providing opportunities for outdoor recreation. It combines the efforts of government agencies legally responsible for environmental quality with those of citizens and interest groups using such resources. This article documents the experiences gained from a co-management process involving the Tine River (a pseudonym) corridor in Ontario. The analysis focuses on revealing factors that fostered opportunities and presented barriers to the voluntary nature of the process. Sharing common objectives, the presence and characteristics of a network, and willingness to share information appear to create opportunities for continued involvement. Different perceptions of intent, particularly between nongovernment and government participants, and failure to fulfill commitments, appear to destroy opportunities for involvement by citizens. Implications from this study are particularly relevant to government agencies, which are identified in this particular case as being responsible for creating significant barriers to this new mode of operation through both past and current actions. Recommendations are made for environmental professionals to foster opportunities and limit barriers to working with volunteers in pursuing co-management.

Environmental Practice 7:221–234 (2005)

Thirty-seven years after the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) was passed, it should come as no surprise that the United States Congress, the President, federal agencies, and private industry have unleashed a major effort to streamline, update, or “reform” the NEPA process. Many of the major stakeholders, even including some environmental interests, believe that NEPA has failed to reach its objectives. Recent Congressional actions or proposals to expand exemptions from NEPA for certain projects, compress environmental review time, and even delegate NEPA compliance to the states are seen by NEPA supporters as overreactions that could eviscerate the Act's purposes and objectives. This article analyzes some of the benefits and risks of “environmental streamlining,” which apply not only to NEPA but also to investigations and reviews required by federal or state agencies responsible for compliance with other environmental laws. The focus is on recent federal legislation, Congressional proposals, Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) initiatives, and actions of selected federal agencies.

Environmental Practice 9:83–95 (2007)

A classic debate in environmental ethics addresses the issue of whether the environment has intrinsic value. Proponents of an anthropocentric account contend that the environment is valuable only insofar as it is useful to human beings, where usefulness can be construed in either narrow or broad terms. Conversely, nonanthropocentrists claim that, in addition to instrumental value, the environment is intrinsically valuable. This debate has important practical implications for the way people conduct themselves concerning the environment. Nevertheless, it has been dismissed by some in the philosophical community as well as beyond. We argue that this debate is important and ought to be taken up by environmental professionals. The aforementioned different views are already reflected in environmental practice, including in the Society of American Foresters Code of Ethics. We argue that useful lessons can be learned from both areas of overlap between anthropocentrists and nonanthropocentrists, as well as from areas of disagreement. We will make our case, in part, by looking at the evolution of ethical responsibility in the engineering profession. Our broader claim is that philosophical discussions can and should be a part of professional practice.

Environmental Practice 14:184–189 (2012)

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been considered one of the most innovative federal agencies in the nation, and the agency recently has employed a new stakeholder engagement practice in rule makings termed shuttle diplomacy. Though the agency has long been experimenting with new stakeholder practices, it is unclear what factors explain the agency’s decision to settle on shuttle diplomacy. This study conducts original interviews with senior career civil servants at the EPA to unpack this decision-making process. These data are then structured by applying Toddi Steelman’s (2010) implementing innovation framework so as to assess what factors are most impactful in the adoption of this new innovative procedure at the EPA. This research suggests that Steelman’s structure and individual variable are of value in explaining the EPA’s rationale for adopting this new practice. Finally, this research discusses the implications of this approach and the practical and political constraints that impact its use.

Environmental Practice 16: 171–181 (2014)