1. The present paper deals with a, series of experiments made in the Physical Laboratory, Edinburgh University, from January to October 1899, with the object of determining the convective loss of heat from a cooling body owing to the action of currents of air.

The history of the newer sciences presents many instructive examples of the progress of the human mind in developing the germs of natural knowledge, and building on a single observation entire departments of science. Few pursuits indeed are more interesting, even to the student of immaterial nature, than in the perusal of such a history to trace the footsteps of the several investigators, and to mark how far, and by what means,—whether by new methods or by greater patience of research,—each successive observer advanced the inquiry. We see the human mind, as it were, set free from the trammels of time, and developing its resources on a large and continuous scale, not limited by the powers of one intellect, the length of one life, or the means of one station. We see, at the same time, what varied gifts and opportunities are necessary for the elucidation of a single subject; how these gifts, though not all imparted to one man or to one generation, are yet wisely and beneficently bestowed on the entire species; and how all are thus enabled to co-operate, either in unfolding abstract truth, or in drawing forth those practical results which directly conduce to the amelioration and comfort of all.

One of the grandest steps which has ever been made in Dynamical Science is contained in two papers, “On a General Method in Dynamics” contributed to the Philosophical Transactions for 1834 and 1835 by Sir W. R. Hamilton. It is there shown that the complete solution of any kinetical problem, involving the action of a given conservative system of forces, and constraint depending upon the reaction of smooth guiding curves or surfaces, also given, is reducible to the determination of a single quantity called the Characteristic Function of the motion. This quantity is to be found from a partial differential equation of the first order, and second degree; and it has been shown that, from any complete integral of this equation, all the circumstances of the motion may be deduced by differentiation. So far as I can discover, this method has not been applied to inverse problems, of the nature of the Brachistochrone for instance, where the object aimed at is essentially the determination of the constraint requisite to produce a given result. It is easy to see, however, that a large class of such questions may be treated successfully by a process perfectly analogous to that of Hamilton; though the characteristic function in such cases is not the same function (of the quantities determining the motion) as that of the Method of Varying Action.

A small fauna of vertebrates is recorded from the Insect Limestone, Bembridge Marls Member, Bouldnor Formation, late Priabonian, latest Eocene, of the Isle of Wight, UK. The taxa represented are unidentified teleost fishes, lizards including a scincoid, unidentified birds and the theridomyid rodent Isoptychus. The scincoid represents the youngest record of the group in the UK. Of particular note is the taphonomic interpretation based on the preservation of anatomical parts of land-based tetrapods that would have been most likely transported to the site of deposition by wind, namely bird feathers and pieces of shed lizard skin. These comprise the majority of the specimens and suggest that the dominant transport mechanism was wind.

Byronids are problematic fossils of possible cnidarian affinity, only rarely reported from the Devonian, but never previously studied in the Barrandian area, Czech Republic. Two new species Prestephanoscyphus branzovensis sp. nov. and Prestephanoscyphus robustus sp. nov. are erected from the Lochkovian and the Eifelian, respectively. Four poorly known species referred to Byronia are described in open nomenclature from the Emsian and Eifelian. The new genus Parabyronia gen. nov. with the type species Parabyronia elegans sp. nov. is closely related to other sphenothallids but is distinguished by transverse ridges on its theca and short spines at the apertural end of the theca. Definite identification of phosphatic rings as the attachment structure of byronids was proved by new material of the Lochkovian age. A dwarf conularia Pidiconularia gen. nov. with the type species Pidiconularia tubulata sp. nov. is remarkable by its minute size and very fine ornament; its conulariid affinity is proved by subrectangular cross-section and four internal carinae. Microstructure of theca of Prestephanoscyphus is characterised by alternation of compact laminae of aligned columnar microcrystallites and chambered laminae with isometric microcrystallites of apatite. Accretionary growth of byronid theca and structure of the holdfast with basal opening for the adhesive pedal disc support their cnidarian affinity although they likely display the bilateral instead of tetramerous symmetry. The protective function of bilaterally symmetrical whorls of internal apophyses in Prestephanoscyphus is suggested and their role in strengthening of thecal wall or supporting function of gastric septa are disputed. The byronids are regarded as epibionts rather than attached to the rocks. They are representatives of benthic groups with phosphatic shells that declined with decreasing availability of phosphorus in seas and oceans.

Sir Charles Blagden concludes a memoir in the Philosophical Transactions of London, vol. lxxviii., for the year 1788, “On the Effect of various substances in lowering the Point of Congelation in Water,” with the account of an experiment to determine the effect of salt upon the expansion of water by cold.

From that experiment, he imagined that he had reason to conclude, as far as one experiment goes, that the combination of a salt with water has no other effect upon its quality of expanding by cold, than to depress the point at which that quality begins to be sensible, just as much as it depresses the point of congelation.

The scientific world appear to have admitted this general deduction of Blagden, and, trusting to the result of a single experiment, extended it so far as to lay it down as a general law, that, as pure water has its maximum of density at 7½° above its freezing point, so every saline solution has a maximum of density at a temperature above its point of congelation, and that this temperature will be exactly 7½° distant from the freezing point of the solution.

Coal and hydrocarbons have been exploited from the Carboniferous rocks of the Midland Valley for over 200 years. This work characterises organic matter from the Mississippian black shales of the Midland Valley from Wardie, Scotland. Biomarker analysis allowed the estimation of the degree of microbial transformation of organic matter, type of kerogen and thermal maturity during hydrocarbon generation. Parameters based on the biomarker indicators confirm a generally mixed type II/III kerogen. However, some samples contain mostly terrestrial organic matter, whilst others contain predominantly marine organic matter, which shows that the sedimentary environment varied greatly throughout the basin. The presence of gammacerane suggests water column stratification and anoxic conditions. Organic matter was much better protected from post-depositional alteration within the concretions, where higher TOC (total organic carbon) and TS (total sulphur) contents occur, than in the surrounding sediments. This can be induced by very early diagenetic formation of these concretions which protected organic matter from late diagenetic degradation.

Estimated values of vitrinite reflectance (Rc, Rcs) show that the sedimentary rocks reached the catagenesis stage. Most samples exhibit maximum organic matter maturation temperatures of around c60–90°C. However, stable isomers of phenyldibenzo[b,d]thiophene detected in some samples indicate that in some cases post-depositional hydrothermal activity affected maturation of organic matter increasing temperatures to as high as c174°C.

Brachiopod taxonomy is based on descriptions of shell morphology and key characters, but diagenesis generally modifies or erases some of them, hindering brachiopod identification. Brachiopods that are taxonomically related usually present shells with similar appearance but can differ in size (i.e., Rhynchonellata). Some aspects of morphology – for example the angular measurement of the curvature of the shell or details of shell microstructure – could aid taxonomic identification. Gigantoproductids, which lack a robust taxonomy, have the largest shells among brachiopods and are ideal for this kind of study because of their gigantic size and morphological variability. Furthermore, they have a great abundance and worldwide distribution during the mid-Carboniferous. More than 700 samples have been collected from Sierra Morena (Spain), Montagne Noire (France) and Adarouch (Morocco) identifying up to six gigantoproductid genera: Globosoproductus, Semiplanus, Kansuella?, Latiproductus, Gigantoproductus and Datangia. Microstructural features from 170 thin sections belonging to gigantoproductid ventral valves have been studied, and six crystal morphologies have been distinguished within the tertiary layer: subhorizontal, imbricated, crenulated, acicular, short and long columnar morphologies. Moreover, 23 complete shells from all genera have been selected to investigate shell size and curvature. Results from this study emphasise that shell size, curvature and crystal shape are taxa-related. Finally, a remarkable morphological change in the gigantoproductid populations from the western Palaeo-Tethys occurred during the Viséan–Serpukhovian, from thin-shelled genera with subhorizontal morphology (Viséan) to thick-shelled genera with a tertiary layer consisting of long columnar crystals (Serpukhovian). This study proves that microstructure, maximum thickness and shell spiral characterisation are robust characters when applied to gigantoproductid taxonomy, but also have great potential in other brachiopod groups.

Ditch cuttings (69 samples) from a section of Awaizombe-1well located in the Northern Depobelt of the eastern Niger Delta Basin were used for this study. The lithology of the studied interval 1373–1812 m (439 m thick) consists of fissile grey shale and mudstone units. The scid method of sample preparation for palynormorphs’ recovery was adopted. Analysis recorded a well-preserved and diverse assemblage of palynomorphs, rich in pollen, spores and dinoflagellate cysts (dinocysts). First and last occurrences of marker and age diagnostic species were used for palynostratigraphic interpretation. Four palynostratigraphic interval range zones were established: Psilatriporites sp.–Racemonocolpites hians Zone; early Oligocene (Rupelian age), Praedapollis africanus–Doualaidites laevigatus Zone; late Eocene (Priabonian age), middle Eocene (Lutetian and Bartonian ages), Doualaidites laevigatus–Praedapollis flexibilies Zone; and early Eocene (Ypresian age), Verrucatosporites usmensis–Retitricolpites ituensis Zone. The first downhole occurrence of D. laevigatus at the 1482 m marks the late Eocene/early Oligocene boundary. Established zones are useful for inter and intra basins correlation. Lithology and age of the studied section are suggestive of the lower Agbada Formation. Palaeoenvironmental interpretations using diagnostic species revealed two environments: brackish and inner neritic to upper bathyal (0–600 m) under relatively warm-water marine condition indicated by thermophilic dinocyst taxa, such as Lingulodinium machaerophorum, Polysphaeridium zoharyi and Homotryblium spp. The lithology and these types of environments are good sites for hydrocarbon generation.

In pursuance of an idea which occurred independently to Professor Tait and myself, a careful examination has been made of the solar autographs, taken at Kew and Cranford, under the superintendence of Mr Warren De la Rue. This was done with the view of detecting, if possible, some reference to planetary configurations in the behaviour of sun-spots, and in this undertaking, much aid was derived from a remark once made by Mr Beckley of Kew, when taking pictures of the sun, to the effect that, for a considerable period of time, he did not observe any spots in the act of breaking out on the visible disc of our luminary. A few words may not be amiss regarding the nature of the scrutiny to which the solar pictures were subjected, and also the value of this as a test of planetary action. In the first place, let us bear in mind, that by the rotation of our luminary, the different portions of his surface are successively presented to each planet in turn. Now, if the bodies of our system have any appreciable influence of this kind upon the sun, it is natural to expect that this should differ for any given portion of his surface, according as this portion is presented to the influencing body, or withdrawn by rotation, so that the sun's diameter is interposed between it and the planet. We should therefore expect to find that, for a given date, the spots should all begin to break out into visibility at or about the same ecliptical longitude. Similarly with regard to their healing up; and, generally, all spots on the sun's disc at a given date should behave in the same manner as they pass a given ecliptical longitude.

In 1855, when the systematic registration of births in Scotland was established, the schedule used exacted from the public a variety of interesting details in connection with each return,—a circumstance which gives to the registers for that year an extraordinary value. For, in consequence, I believe, of numerous complaints regarding the irksome labour of filling up the document, it was discontinued, and a much less comprehensive schedule has been in use ever since. It is from the registers of births for 1855 that I have extracted almost all the data which have yielded the results I am now about to communicate. Similar data cannot be found in the subsequent registers. The great value of these registers has been distinctly pointed out by Dr Stark, the able assistant to the Registrar-General. I must here acknowledge, with grateful thanks, the assistance and encouragement I have received from Mr Seton and other officials of the Register-House.

A few years ago the late Sir C. Wyville Thomson gave me for examination some specimens of Ascidians which had been obtained during the cruises of the “Porcupine” and “Lightning,” and last summer I received from Mr John Murray the remainder of the Ascidiæ Simplices and two species of the Ascidiæ Compositæ from the same deep-sea dredging expeditions. Some additional specimens of the “Porcupine” Ascidiæ Compositæ have been placed in my hands during the last few days (January 1, 1884). The present paper contains a detailed account of the Simple Ascidians alone; the Compound forms will be worked up along with the “Challenger” Ascidiæ Compositæ, and will be described and figured in the second part of my Report upon the Tunicata of the “Challenger” Expedition. It may, however, be useful to state here that the “Porcupine” Compound Ascidians include:—

Towards the end of May of this year I made my third visit to the Rigi Kulm, for the purpose of continuing my observations on the amount of dust in the atmosphere and other meteorological phenomena. It was with a feeling of no little satisfaction that I found myself at that elevated situation during broken weather, and under conditions very different from any previously experienced by me. On this occasion I had come in the hope of finding opportunities for making some observations on the conditions existing in clouds, in addition to the usual dust observations, and had brought with me the small instrument for observing the water particles in a fog, described in a previous communication to this Society. As the weather continued to be variable during the week of my visit, I was fortunate enough to succeed in making a number of interesting observations on the water particles in clouds, and also of comparing the conditions in clouds at this elevated situation with those previously observed in fogs at a low level.

Before giving the results of my observations on the water particles, it may be desirable to make a few remarks on the solid or dust particles. When making the ordinary dust observations this year, it was frequently noticed that, when surrounded by clouds, the number of particles varied greatly at short intervals of time.

New sauropod dinosaur material is described from Jones Ranch, Early Cretaceous of Texas (USA). Originally described as Paluxysaurus jonesi, the material from Jones Ranch has recently been referred to Sauroposeidon proteles. Elements newly prepared from dense concretionary matrix include the sacrum, ilium and proximal portion of the tail. Reconstructions of the skull and sacrum plus pelvic girdles are presented. ‘Paluxysaurus jonesi’ (=S. proteles) is a blunt-faced sauropod that was originally regarded as closely related to Brachiosaurus. Portions of the sacrum are now exposed and show that it is nearly complete, missing only parts of the first sacral (S1). The anterior sacrals are firmly fused, however, a newly discovered opisthocoelous last sacral (S6) remains unfused. A complete sequence of proximal caudal vertebrae shows a rapid transition from anteroposteriorly short and mediolaterally broad centra anteriorly, to more elongate cylindrical centra posteriorly. All proximal caudals have slightly amphicoelous centra. Some middle anterior caudals have a shallow longitudinal groove on the ventral surface of the centrum. Specimens from Jones Ranch exhibit characters of the sacrum and tail that clearly corroborate placement of ‘P. jonesi’ (Sauroposeidon proteles) as a somphospondylan titanosauriform.

Some months ago, in investigating the anatomy of the eyes of fishes, I washed off the back silvery part of the choroid coat of the haddock, with a hair pencil, and about half a teaspoonful of water. The latter became of a milky colour, and on examining a drop of it, with an Ellis's aquatic microscope, I found the milkiness to be owing to innumerable slender, flat, silvery spicula, which had composed the substance of the choroid. They seemed to be in constant motion, apparently rolling upon their axes, but having no degree of progressive movement. The light reflected from their surface was very brilliant, like that from polished silver, and often disappeared, and again returned, with alternations so rapid, as to produce a twinkling, very like that of a fixed star.

The study is based on over 170 bivalve specimens collected in the last seven years by three independent collectors in basal Westphalian D strata at Piesberg Quarry, near Osnabrück, northern Germany. All the material has come from the roof shales of either the Bänkchen or the Dreibänke coal, 25 m above it, most of it from above the Dreibanke coal. Both faunal bands have closely similar sediments, shells and floral associations, mainly of hydrophyllic plants, including those that characterise waterlogged swamps. The palaeoenvironments were, on average, of low energy deltaic lakes.

Both faunal bands constitute life assemblages of small, sparse Anthraconaia mingled with abundant plants and plant debris in richly carbonaceous shale with a variable carbonate content. Siphonal and pedal gapes of the valves indicate that the bivalves lived in a steeply burrowing position probably below the surface of the sediments. After death most valve pairs lay with their median planes parallel to the bedding planes of the sediment. Later overlying pressure, normal to bedding planes and varying according to the time of carbonate formation, led to a pattern of breakdown of the convexity of the shells essentially the same as that found in larger Anthraconaia in Westphalian B. In both cases it appears that lateral profiles of shells have been unaffected by vertical crushing. It is therefore reasonable to treat the profiles of uncrushed and vertically crushed shells together.

On the basis of measurements and morphology two groups of shells have been distinguished at Piesberg, that of Anthraconaia pruvosti (Tchernychev) Weir, comprising about 96 per cent of the fauna, and the remainder Anthraconaia piesbergensis sp. nov. Each is illustrated by a variation diagram or pictograph and is in part defined by growth equations in terms of shell length, height and anterior end. The small A. piesbergensis, which also yields evidence of posterior gape, is formally described. Anthraconaia pruvosti, which has not been previously recorded in Germany, shows extremely wide variation with a number of new varieties, but all intergrade with previously known varieties of this species and include Anthraconaia weissiana (Geinitz). The mean size of the shells is half that of the holotype, from northern France, but size ranges are comparable with those from the U.K. The mode of the fauna lies around small, elongate, subtriangular shells with nearly straight to slightly reflected ventral margins.

The elements of the Piesberg fauna fall into place stratigraphically in the sequence of Anthraconaia faunas in Westphalian C to late Westphalian D, mainly in the southern part of the U.K. Moreover, very small, scarce shells recently described above No. 10 coal, late Westphalian D at Writhlington, Somerset, U.K., appear related to A. piesbergensis. At this horizon they had different associates and a different palaeohabitat from those of the larger Anthraconaia pringlei (Dix & Trueman) which succeeded A. pruvosti. It is therefore likely that A. piesbergensis may have occupied a different palaeoecological niche from that of A. pruvosti and that A. piesbergensis was collected from a horizon slightly different from those yielding A. pruvosti at Piesberg Quarry, possibly from a fauna which lived in shallower water.

Re-figuring of uncrushed, excellently preserved material of Anthraconaia aff. pruvosti from late Westphalian C of Pembrokeshire, SW Wales, reveals new evidence of the musculature of the genus Anthraconaia. There is also clear evidence of siphonal and pedal gapes in closed valves, both being features previously unrecognised in Anthraconaia, and characteristic, to date, only of Westphalian late C and D Stages in Germany and the U.K.

Sir George Clerk-Maxwell of Pennycuik, Baronet, one of the Presidents of the Physical Class of this Society, was born at Edinburgh, on the last day of October 1715. He was the fourth son of Sir John Clerk of Pennycuik, one of the Barons of Exchequer in Scotland: His mother was a daughter of Sir James Inglis of Cramond.

His more early studies were carried on at the University of Edinburgh, under the eye of his father, who was himself a man of letters, and from whom he appears very early to have caught a strong taste for Natural History, Antiquities and the Theory of Commerce, particularly in so far as these branches of knowledge related to his own country. He afterwards went to Leyden, where he finished his studies under the immediate inspection of the celebrated Boerhaave, who had been the friend of his father; and, before his return home, he visited several parts of France and Germany.

I some time ago had the honour to present to the Royal Society, a specimen of a very singular fossil which had been found in the freestone quarry of Craigleith, near this city. It presented the appearance so commonly met with in the sandstone of the coal-formation,—an impression of what has always been considered as the bark of a vegetable connected with the Palm-tribe; but it differed from any thing I had ever before seen of the kind, by having circular marks ranged in a line along the surface, being apparently the impressions of flowers or fruit. As neither of these grow directly from the stem of any plant now known, except among the Cactus genus, this impression might have been referred to it, had not the regularity of distance between these supposed flowers, pointed out the improbability; and it consequently must be referred to some one, the prototype of which is no longer known.

The size of the specimen, of which the annexed engraving is a very exact representation, is twenty-one inches in length, and about fourteen broad; the widest part of the impression measures four inches, and the diameter of the circles a little more than three.

Before commencing the discussion of the subject, it is necessary to make some definitions, with a view to avoiding the confusion which extensively prevails, from the neglect of the all-important definition of terms. I might be even more exact than I shall be, and excuse myself from adopting such a seeming improvement, on the ground that further refinement of definition would itself cause confusion in the present stage of advancement of our knowledge.

Absolute sterility, I shall hold to mean the condition of a woman who, under ordinary favourable cirumstances for breeding, produces no living or dead child, nor any kind of abortion.

Sterility, I shall hold to mean the condition of a woman who, under ordinary favourable circumstances for breeding, adds not even one to the population, or produces no living and viable child.

Relative sterility, I shall hold to mean the condition of a woman who, while she may or may not be absolutely sterile, while she may or may not be sterile, is, under ordinary favourable circumstances for breeding, sterile in relation to the circumstance of time; or, in other words, in relation to her age, and the duration of her married life.

The Reverend Dr Matthew Stewart, late Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh, was the son of the Reverend Mr Dugald Stewart, Minister of Rothsay in the Isle of Bute, and was born at that place in the year 1717. After having finished his course at the grammar-school, being intended by his father for the Church, he was sent to the University of Glasgow, and was entered there as a student in 1734. His academical studies were prosecuted with diligence and success; and he was so happy as to be particularly distinguished by the friendship of Dr Hutcheson and Dr Simson. With the latter, indeed, he soon became very intimately connected; for though it is said, that his predilection for the Mathematics did not instantly appear on his application to the study of that science, yet the particular direction of his talents was probably observed by his master before it was perceived by himself.