The growing base of research on parenting stress and its relation to child behavior problems has largely paralleled the emergence of developmental psychopathology as a field of inquiry. Specifically, the focus on mechanism rather than main effects has begun to elevate explanatory models in the connection between parenting stress and a variety of adverse child and parent conditions. Still, work on parenting stress is limited by conceptual confusion, the absence of attention to developmental differentiation, a focus on child-specific rather than system influences. Recent research on these parenting stress issues is briefly reviewed, highlighting studies that have illustrated developmental psychopathology perspectives. A conceptual model is offered to illustrate the complex recursive nature of connections between parenting stress, parenting behavior, parent well-being, and children’s adjustment, and I make a case for the adoption of a more systemic perspective to influence the next generation of developmental psychopathology research on parenting stress.

This study aimed to delineate profiles of self-regulation among sexually abused children and their association with behavior problems using a person-centered approach. A sample of 223 children aged six to 12, their parents, and teachers were recruited in specialized intervention centers. Latent profile analysis revealed four profiles: (1) Dysregulated, (2) Inhibited, (3) Flexibly Regulated, and (4) Parent Perceived Self-Regulation. Children from the Flexibly Regulated profile showed relatively low behavior problems, and those from the Dysregulated profile were characterized by high behavior problems. Children from the Parent Perceived Self-Regulation profile showed overall good adaptation, although teachers reported higher behavior problems than parents. Children from the Inhibited profile, characterized by the highest level of inhibition but low parent-rated emotion regulation competencies and executive functions, showed the highest level of internalizing behavior problems, indicating that high inhibition does not necessarily translate to better adaptation. Results also show a moderation effect of sex. Being assigned to the Inhibited profile was associated with decreased externalizing behaviors in boys and increased internalizing behaviors in girls. This study underscores the complexity of self-regulation in sexually abused children and supports the need to adopt a multi-method and multi-informant approach when assessing these children.

The COVID-19 pandemic has presented youth and families with a broad spectrum of unique stressors. Given that adolescents are at increased risk for mental health and emotional difficulties, it is critical to explore family processes that confer resilience for youth in the face of stress. The current study investigated caregiver emotion regulation (ER) as a familial factor contributing to youth ER and risk for psychopathology following stressful life events. In a longitudinal sample of 224 youth (Mage = 12.65 years) and their caregivers, we examined whether caregiver and youth engagement in ER strategies early in the pandemic mediated the associations of pandemic-related stress with youth internalizing and externalizing symptoms six months later. Leveraging serial mediation analysis, we demonstrated that caregiver and youth rumination, but not expressive suppression or cognitive reappraisal, mediated the prospective associations of pandemic-related stress with youth internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Greater exposure to pandemic-related stressors was associated with greater caregiver rumination, which, in turn, related to greater rumination in youth, and higher levels of youth internalizing and externalizing symptoms thereafter. Family interventions that target caregiver ER, specifically rumination, may buffer against the consequences of stress on youth engagement in maladaptive ER strategies and risk for psychopathology.

Dante Cicchetti propelled forward the field of developmental psychopathology by advancing this framework and championing new methods, including emphasizing the central role that multilevel analysis holds for explicating pathways of risk and resilience. His work continues to change the face of existing science. It has also paved the way for the formation of new projects, like the Research Domain Criteria initiative. This paper uses our laboratory’s work on multilevel approaches to studying adolescent depression, non-suicidal self-injury, and suicidal thoughts and behaviors to shine a spotlight on Dr Cicchetti’s contributions. In addition, we review recent developments, ongoing challenges, and promising future directions within developmental psychopathology as we endeavor to carry on the tradition of growth in the field.

Associations between adversity and youth psychopathology likely vary based on the types and timing of experiences. Major theories suggest that the impact of childhood adversity may either be cumulative in type (the more types of adversity, the worse outcomes) or in timing (the longer exposure, the worse outcomes) or, alternatively, specific concerning the type (e.g., parenting, home, neighborhood) or the timing of adversity (e.g., specific developmental periods). In a longitudinal sample from the Future of Families and Wellbeing Study (N = 4,210), we evaluated these competing hypotheses using a data-driven structured life-course modeling approach using risk factors examined at child age 1 (infancy), 3 (toddlerhood), 5 (early childhood), and 9 (middle childhood). Results showed that exposures to more types of adversity for longer durations (i.e., cumulative in both type and timing) best predicted youth psychopathology. Adversities that occurred at age 9 were better predictors of youth psychopathology as compared to those experienced earlier, except for neglect, which was predictive of internalizing symptoms when experienced at age 3. Throughout childhood (across ages 1–9), aside from the accumulation of all adversities, parental stress and low collective efficacy were the strongest predictors of internalizing symptoms, whereas psychological aggression was predictive of externalizing symptoms.

Fear of positive evaluation (FPE) has recently emerged as an important aspect of social anxiety, alongside fear of negative evaluation. These evaluation fears peak during adolescence, a developmental stage that is also often accompanied by difficulties in emotion regulation, thereby increasing young individuals’ vulnerability to mental disorders, such as social anxiety. We aimed to examine the longitudinal within-person associations between fears of evaluation, social anxiety, and three emotion regulation strategies (i.e., acceptance, suppression, rumination) in adolescents. Data were collected from a sample of 684 adolescents through an online survey three times over the course of 6 months and were analyzed using random intercept cross-lagged panel models. At the between-person level, FPE was linked to all three emotion regulation strategies, whereas fear of negative evaluation and social anxiety were associated with acceptance and rumination. At the within-person level, difficulties in accepting emotions predicted FPE, suppression predicted social anxiety, and social anxiety predicted rumination over time. These findings reveal complex interdependencies between emotion regulation, social anxiety, and evaluation fears, both reflecting individual differences and predicting changes within individuals, and further elucidate the developmental trajectory of social anxiety in adolescence.

Numerous differences exist between and within research projects related to assessment and operationalization of potentially traumatic events (PTEs) for youth, especially when measuring polyvictimization. However, few studies have systematically examined how polyvictimization measurement differences influence PTE’s relation to functioning. This study sought to address these knowledge gaps by conducting a secondary data multiverse replication (SDMR) to systematically (re)evaluate PTE polyvictimization measurement approaches. Participants included 3297 adolescents (Mage = 14.63; 50.59% female; 65.15% white) from the National Survey of Adolescents-Replication study who completed a structured interview on PTE exposure and emotional and behavioral health (i.e., posttraumatic stress and major depressive disorder, drug and alcohol use, and delinquency). Results indicated that PTE operationalizations using a count variable tended to demonstrate better model performance and prediction of youth at-risk of emotional and behavioral health challenges, compared to models using a binary (yes/no) PTE operationalization. Differences in model performance and prediction were less distinct between models examining multiple forms of a single type of PTE (e.g., maltreatment, community violence), compared to models examining multiple PTE types. These findings emphasize the importance of using multidimensional approaches to PTE operationalization and the need for more multiverse analyses to improve PTE evidence-based assessment.

Dimensional models of early life adversity highlight the distinct roles of deprivation and threat in shaping neurocognitive development and mental health. However, relatively little is known about the role of unpredictability within each dimension. We estimated both the average levels of, and the temporal unpredictability of deprivation and threat exposure during adolescence in a high-risk, longitudinal sample of 1354 youth (Pathways to Desistance study). We then related these estimates to later life psychological distress, and Antisocial and Borderline personality traits, and tested whether any effects are mediated by future orientation. High average levels of both deprivation and threat exposure were found to be associated with worse mental health on all three outcomes, but only the effects on Antisocial and Borderline personality traits were mediated by decreased future orientation, a pattern consistent with evolutionary models of psychopathology. Unpredictability in deprivation exposure proved to be associated with increased psychological distress and a higher number of Borderline traits, but with increased future orientation. There was some evidence of unpredictability in threat exposure buffering against the detrimental developmental effects of average threat levels. Our results suggest that the effects of unpredictability are distinct within different dimensions of early life adversity.

Difficulties in empathy are frequent among children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and often considered a core feature of autism. Reduced empathy during the second year of life has been shown to predict subsequent ASD diagnosis. However, links between empathy in the first year and ASD have not yet been investigated. Moreover, prior work focused on empathy for others’ distress but not for others’ joy. To address these gaps, this prospective longitudinal study followed 60 infants (33% girls), 39 at high genetic risk of ASD (siblings of children with ASD) and a matching control group. Infants’ empathic responses to others’ distress and happiness were assessed at ages 6, 9, and 12 months, using simulations by the mother/experimenter and videos of crying and laughing infants. Diagnosis was determined between 18 and 36 months. Infants later diagnosed with ASD showed a reduced empathic response toward a person simulating distress, but not toward a video of a crying peer, and not in response to others’ joy (either in simulation or video). Overall, reduced empathic concern during the first year of life appears to be an early prodromal marker of subsequent ASD. Implications for theory, research, and practice are discussed.

Moral emotions such as shame, guilt and pride are crucial to young children’s social-emotional development. Due to the restrictions caused by hearing loss in accessing the social world, deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) children may encounter extra difficulties in their development of moral emotions. However, little research so far has investigated the development trajectory of moral emotions during preschool years in DHH children. The present study used a longitudinal design to explore the development trajectories of shame, guilt, and pride, in a sample of 259 Chinese DHH and typically hearing (TH) preschoolers aged 2 to 6 years old. The results indicated that according to parent reports, DHH children manifested lower levels of guilt and pride compared to their TH peers, yet the manifested levels of shame, guilt, and pride increased throughout the preschool time at a similar pace in all children. Moreover, whilst guilt and pride contributed to increasing levels of psychosocial functioning over the preschool years, shame contributed to lower social competence and more externalizing behaviors in DHH and TH preschoolers. The outcomes imply that early interventions and adjustment to hearing loss could be useful to safeguard the social development of children with severe hearing loss, and cultural variances shall be taken into consideration when studying moral emotions in a Chinese cultural background.

Resolving trauma may contribute to mental health and parenting in mother with histories of childhood maltreatment. The concept of trauma-specific reflective functioning (T-RF) was developed to assess the complexity of thought processes regarding trauma. The study aimed to validate the T-RF scale applied to the Trauma Meaning-Making Interview by examining its psychometric properties, associations with measures of trauma-processing strategies, maternal reflective functioning and mental health (depression and post-traumatic stress disorder [PTSD]), as well as evaluating whether T-RF offered a unique contribution to maternal insightfulness. Good construct validity of the T-RF scale was confirmed in a sample of 112 mothers with histories of childhood maltreatment using an independent coding system of trauma-processing. Better mentalization of trauma was prospectively associated with higher parental reflective functioning and mothers with high T-RF were much more likely to be insightful regarding the child’s mental states than non-reflective mothers and mothers with limited T-RF. The association between T-RF and insightfulness was observed even when controlling for maternal reflective functioning, trauma-processing strategies, maternal education and sociodemographic risk. T-RF was associated neither with depression, PTSD nor the characteristics of trauma. Findings suggest that mentalizing trauma would be an important protective factor in the intergenerational trajectories of trauma.

This study aimed (1) to identify distinct family trajectory profiles of destructive interparental conflict and parent-child emotional warmth reported by one parent, and (2) to examine whether these codevelopmental profiles were associated with the longitudinal development of children and adolescents’ self-reported internalizing and externalizing problems. Six longitudinal data waves from the German Family Panel (pairfam) study (Waves 2–7) from 722 parent-child dyads were used (age of children and adolescents in years: M = 10.03, SD = 1.90, range = 8–15; 48.3% girls; 73.3% of parents were native Germans). Data were analyzed using growth mixture and latent growth curve modeling. Two classes, harmonious and conflictual-warm families, were found based on codevelopmental trajectories of interparental conflict and emotional warmth. These family profiles were linked with the development of externalizing problems in children and adolescents but not their internalizing problems. Family dynamics are entangled in complex ways and constantly changing, which appears relevant to children’s behavior problems.

This study examined the predictors and sequelae of exposure to peer pressure from close friends in adolescence. Adolescents (99 female; 85 male) were followed from age 13 to 24 utilizing peer, parent, and romantic partner reports and observational data. Participants who were exposed to high levels of peer pressure as teens were more likely to experience higher levels of coercive behavior from romantic partners (as reported by those partners), as well as lower levels of parent-reported functional independence. All findings held even after accounting for baseline levels of teen assertiveness. Adolescents at risk for increasing exposure to peer pressure were characterized by poor-quality parent and peer relationships, as well as baseline deficits in ability to assert autonomy. Results suggest that exposure to peer pressure, aside from its potential effects on deviant or risky behavior, may reflect a powerful threat to the autonomy development process as adolescents transition from parents to peers as primary sources of support and interaction.

One species-general life history (LH) principle posits that challenging childhood environments are coupled with a fast or faster LH strategy and associated behaviors, while secure and stable childhood environments foster behaviors conducive to a slow or slower LH strategy. This coupling between environments and LH strategies is based on the assumption that individuals’ internal traits and states are independent of their external surroundings. In reality, individuals respond to external environmental conditions in alignment with their intrinsic vitality, encompassing both physical and mental states. The present study investigated attachment as an internal mental state, examining its role in mediating and moderating the association between external environmental adversity and fast LH strategies. A sample of 1169 adolescents (51% girls) from 9 countries was tracked over 10 years, starting from age 8. The results confirm both mediation and moderation and, for moderation, secure attachment nullified and insecure attachment maintained the environment-LH coupling. These findings suggest that attachment could act as an internal regulator, disrupting the contingent coupling between environmental adversity and a faster pace of life, consequently decelerating human LH.

The idea that some abilities might be enhanced by adversity is gaining traction. Adaptation-based approaches have uncovered a few specific abilities enhanced by particular adversity exposures. Yet, for a field to grow, we must not dig too deep, too soon. In this paper, we complement confirmatory research with principled exploration. We draw on two insights from adaptation-based research: 1) enhanced performance manifests within individuals, and 2) reduced and enhanced performance can co-occur. Although commonly assumed, relative performance differences are rarely tested. To quantify them, we need a wide variety of ability measures. However, rather than using adaptive logic to predict which abilities are enhanced or reduced, we develop statistical criteria to identify three data patterns: reduced, enhanced, and intact performance. With these criteria, we analyzed data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development to investigate how adversity shapes within-person performance across 10 abilities in a cognitive and achievement battery. Our goals are to document adversity-shaped cognitive performance patterns, identify drivers of reduced performance, identify sets of “intact” abilities, and discover new enhanced abilities. We believe principled exploration with clear criteria can help break new theoretical and empirical ground, remap old territory, and advance theory development.

Autistic children and their parents are at risk for mental health problems, but the processes driving these connections are unknown. Leveraging three data cycles (spaced M = 11.76 months, SD = 2.77) on 162 families with autistic children (aged 6–13 years), the associations between parent–child relationship quality (warmth and criticism), child mental health problems, and parent depression symptoms were examined. A complete longitudinal mediation model was conducted using structural equation modeling. Father depression mediated the link between child mental health problems and father critical comments (β = −0.017, p = 0.018; CI [−.023 – −.015]). Father report of child mental health problems mediated the association between father depression and father critical comments (β = 0.016, p = 0.040; CI [0.003–0.023]) as well as the association between father positive remarks and father depression (β = −0.009, p = 0.032; CI [−0.010 – −0.009]). Additionally, father positive remarks mediated the connection between father depression and child mental health problems (β = 0.022, p = 0.006; CI [0.019–0.034]). No mediation effects were present for mothers. Findings highlight that the mental health of parents and autistic children are intertwined. Interventions that improve the parent–child relationship may reduce the reciprocal toll of parent and child mental health problems.

Researchers often aim to assess whether repeated measures of an exposure are associated with repeated measures of an outcome. A question of particular interest is how associations between exposures and outcomes may differ over time. In other words, researchers may seek the best form of a temporal model. While several models are possible, researchers often consider a few key models. For example, researchers may hypothesize that an exposure measured during a sensitive period may be associated with repeated measures of the outcome over time. Alternatively, they may hypothesize that the exposure measured immediately before the current time period may be most strongly associated with the outcome at the current time. Finally, they may hypothesize that all prior exposures are important. Many analytic methods cannot compare and evaluate these alternative temporal models, perhaps because they make the restrictive assumption that the associations between exposures and outcomes remains constant over time. Instead, we provide a tutorial describing four temporal models that allow the associations between repeated measures of exposures and outcomes to vary, and showing how to test which temporal model is best supported by the data. By finding the best temporal model, developmental psychopathology researchers can find optimal windows for intervention.

Prenatal maternal anxiety is considered a risk factor for the development of child internalizing problems. However, little is known about potential mechanisms that account for these associations. The current study examined whether prenatal maternal anxiety was indirectly associated with toddler internalizing problems via prenatal maternal physiology and infant negative affectivity. We examined these associations in a longitudinal study of 162 expectant mothers from their third trimester until 18 months postpartum. Path analyses showed that higher prenatal anxiety was associated with higher infant negative affectivity at 7 months, which in turn was associated with higher toddler internalizing problems at 18 months. Prenatal anxiety was not indirectly associated with child outcomes via baseline or task-evoked respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) in response to an infant cry while pregnant. However, pregnant women with greater decreases in task-evoked RSA had toddlers with greater internalizing problems, which was mediated by infant negative affectivity at 7 months. Findings suggest that prenatal anxiety and RSA reactivity to an infant cry may be independent risk factors for the development of infant negative affectivity, which in turn increases risk for toddler internalizing problems. These findings contribute to a growing literature on mechanisms that underlie intergenerational transmission of internalizing problems.

Childhood maltreatment (CM) deeply impacts victims’ social competences. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect that CM duration exerts on victims’ affective and social development testing three different impact trajectories (i.e., linear, logarithmic and quadratic) and its physiological (facial mimicry and autonomic regulation of the heart) and behavioral (percentage of anger recognition false alarm) markers. In a cross-sectional design, 73 Sierra Leonean youths (all males, 5–17 years old) were enrolled in the study. Of those, 36 were homeless all abandoned at the age of 4 and exposed to CM, whereas 37 were controls. Only physiological markers of affective development were influenced by CM duration. A quadratic relation between the autonomic regulation recorded at rest and CM duration was found, indicating initial physiological compensation followed by progressive autonomic withdrawal. Furthermore, CM duration was associated to a specific linear decrease of facial mimicry and vagal regulation in response to angry and sad facial expressions whereas no influences were detected for happy and fearful faces. The results of the present study provide insightful clues on victims’ natural patterns of resilience, deterioration, and chronicity, allowing a deeper comprehension of the developmental pathways through which early life adversities place youths on a track of lifelong health disparities.