The aims of this article were to review the published literature on fungal endocarditis in children and to discuss the aetiology and diagnosis, with emphasis on non-invasive methods and various treatment regimes.

We systematically reviewed published cases and case series of fungal endocarditis in children. We searched the literature, including PubMed and individual references for publications of original articles, single cases, or case series of paediatric fungal endocarditis, with the following keywords: “fungal endocarditis”, “neonates”, “infants”, “child”, and “cardiac vegetation”.

There have been 192 documented cases of fungal endocarditis in paediatrics. The highest number of cases was reported in infants (93/192, 48%) including 60 in neonates. Of the neonatal cases, 57 were premature with a median gestational age of 27 weeks and median birth weight of 860 g. Overall, 120 yeast – fungus that grows as a single cell – infections and 43 mould – fungus that grows in multicellular filaments, hyphae – infections were reported. With increasing age, there was an increased infection rate with moulds. All the yeast infections were detected by blood culture. In cases with mould infection, diagnosis was mainly established by culture or histology of emboli or infected valves after invasive surgical procedures. There have been a few recent cases of successful early diagnosis by non-invasive methods such as blood polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for moulds. The overall mortality for paediatric fungal endocarditis was 56.25%. The most important cause of death was cardiac complications due to heart failure. Among the various treatment regimens used, none of them was significantly associated with better outcome.

Non-invasive methods such as PCR tests can be used to improve the chances of detecting and identifying the aetiological agent in a timely manner. Delays in the diagnosis of these infections may result in high mortality and morbidity. No significant difference was noted between combined surgical and medical therapy over exclusively combined medical therapy.

Automated external defibrillators can be life-saving in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.

Our aim was to review our experience of prescribing automated external defibrillators for children at increased risk of sudden arrhythmic death.

We reviewed all automated external defibrillators issued by the Scottish Paediatric Cardiac Electrophysiology Service from 2005 to 2015. All parents were given resuscitation training according to the Paediatric Resuscitation Guidelines, including the use of the automated external defibrillator.

A total of 36 automated external defibrillators were issued to 36 families for 44 children (27 male). The mean age at issue was 8.8 years. Diagnoses at issue included long QT syndrome (50%), broad complex tachycardia (14%), hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (11%), and catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (9%). During the study period, the automated external defibrillator was used in four (9%) children, and in all four the automated external defibrillator correctly discriminated between a shockable rhythm – polymorphic ventricular tachycardia/ventricular fibrillation in three patients with one or more shocks delivered – and non-shockable rhythm – sinus rhythm in one patient. Of the three children, two of them who received one or more shocks for ventricular fibrillation/polymorphic ventricular tachycardia survived, but one died as a result of recurrent torsades de pointes. There were no other deaths.

Parents can be taught to recognise cardiac arrest, apply resuscitation skills, and use an automated external defibrillator. Prescribing an automated external defibrillator should be considered for children at increased risk of sudden arrhythmic death, especially where the risk/benefit ratio of an implantable defibrillator is unclear or delay to defibrillator implantation is deemed necessary.

Acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery is a frequent and serious complication among children with congenital heart disease (CHD) and adults with acquired heart disease; however, the significance of kidney injury in adults after congenital heart surgery is unknown. The primary objective of this study was to determine the incidence of acute kidney injury after surgery for adult CHD. Secondary objectives included determination of risk factors and associations with clinical outcomes.

This single-centre, retrospective cohort study was performed in a quaternary cardiovascular ICU in a paediatric hospital including all consecutive patients ⩾18 years between 2010 and 2013.

Data from 118 patients with a median age of 29 years undergoing cardiac surgery were analysed. Using Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcome creatinine criteria, 36% of patients developed kidney injury, with 5% being moderate to severe (stage 2/3). Among higher-complexity surgeries, incidence was 59%. Age ⩾35 years, preoperative left ventricular dysfunction, preoperative arrhythmia, longer bypass time, higher Risk Adjustment for Congenital Heart Surgery-1 category, and perioperative vancomycin use were significant risk factors for kidney injury development. In multivariable analysis, age ⩾35 years and vancomycin use were significant predictors. Those with kidney injury were more likely to have prolonged duration of mechanical ventilation and cardiovascular ICU stay in the univariable regression analysis.

We demonstrated that acute kidney injury is a frequent complication in adults after surgery for CHD and is associated with poor outcomes. Risk factors for development were identified but largely not modifiable. Further investigation within this cohort is necessary to better understand the problem of kidney injury.

This study aimed to assess the results of endomyocardial biopsy from the right ventricle to establish the possible cause for drug-refractory arrhythmias in children.

We enrolled 19 consecutive young patients with drug-refractory arrhythmia, from 2010 to 2013, who underwent endomyocardial biopsy. Inclusion criteria were as follows: age <18 years with a structurally normal heart or mild changes in a structure of the heart initially diagnosed as arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy. Overall, 86 biopsies were performed in 19 patients. Histopathological analysis, immunohistochemistry, and polymerase chain reaction were used for the interpretation of the endomyocardial biopsy.

The mean age of the patient population was 14.1±2.9 year (range from 7 to 17 years). All these patients had a history of drug-refractory arrhythmia for >5 months (mean 30 months). Patients underwent a complete history investigation, physical examination, laboratory studies, echocardiography, electrocardiography, treadmill test, and Holter monitoring before endomyocardial biopsy; two patients with arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia had implantable cardioverter defibrillator implantation and further appropriate successful device shocks. Myocarditis was diagnosed based on histopathological and immunohistological analyses in nine (47.4%) patients. Polymerase chain reaction was positive for viral genome in four of them; five patients had active myocarditis. Radiofrequency ablation was performed in 17 patients; five out of six (83%) endomyocardial biopsy-proved myocarditis patients had successful radiofrequency ablation. No significant complication was reported during ablation and endomyocardial biopsy.

Approximately half of the children with drug-refractory arrhythmia had unsuspected myocarditis according to the results of the endomyocardial biopsy.

“Heterotaxy syndrome”, best segregated as isomerism, is characterised by laterality defects of the thoraco-abdominal organs, causing functional impairment. In particular, the spleen is frequently affected, increasing susceptibility to bacteraemia. This study explored factors that may increase the risk of bacteraemia in patients with isomerism.

We identified patients with CHD and isomerism. Review of outpatient, inpatient, and surgical records was conducted to collect data and determine trends in the cohort. A Cox regression analysis was conducted to determine factors influencing freedom from bacteraemia (Fig 1).

We identified 83 patients with CHD and isomerism – 17 (20%) who had documented episodes of bacteraemia with a total of 21 episodes. A majority (86%) were nosocomial. The median age at the time of bacteraemia was 4 months. Although splenic anatomy did appear to influence the risk of bacteraemia in univariate analysis, this significance was lost with multivariate analysis. None of the other factors was significantly associated in either univariate or multivariate analysis.

Specific factors such as splenic anatomy, atrial appendage isomerism, and antibiotic prophylaxis status are not significantly associated with the risk of bacteraemia in patients with CHD and isomerism. Nosocomial infections represent a majority of bacteraemia in these patients.

Chylothorax after paediatric cardiac surgery incurs significant morbidity; however, a detailed understanding that does not rely on single-centre or administrative data is lacking. We described the present clinical epidemiology of postoperative chylothorax and evaluated variation in rates among centres with a multicentre cohort of patients treated in cardiac ICU.

This was a retrospective cohort study using prospectively collected clinical data from the Pediatric Cardiac Critical Care Consortium registry. All postoperative paediatric cardiac surgical patients admitted from October, 2013 to September, 2015 were included. Risk factors for chylothorax and association with outcomes were evaluated using multivariable logistic or linear regression models, as appropriate, accounting for within-centre clustering using generalised estimating equations.

A total of 4864 surgical hospitalisations from 15 centres were included. Chylothorax occurred in 3.8% (n=185) of hospitalisations. Case-mix-adjusted chylothorax rates varied from 1.5 to 7.6% and were not associated with centre volume. Independent risk factors for chylothorax included age <1 year, non-Caucasian race, single-ventricle physiology, extracardiac anomalies, longer cardiopulmonary bypass time, and thrombosis associated with an upper-extremity central venous line (all p<0.05). Chylothorax was associated with significantly longer duration of postoperative mechanical ventilation, cardiac ICU and hospital length of stay, and higher in-hospital mortality (all p<0.001).

Chylothorax after cardiac surgery in children is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. A five-fold variation in chylothorax rates was observed across centres. Future investigations should identify centres most adept at preventing and managing chylothorax and disseminate best practices.

We aimed to investigate whether early postoperative extubation following the Fontan operation is universally feasible and can be used as a management tool in unstable patients.

All patients undergoing the Fontan operation in our centre between 2004 and 2013 (n=253) were analysed. Until 2008, patients were extubated according to standard criteria and comprised group 1. Group 2 included all patients presenting after 2009, when early extubation was always aimed regardless of the haemodynamic status. Patients who exceeded the 75th percentiles for volume requirements and inotrope scores for the respective group were defined as unstable. Comparisons of outcomes between groups and subgroups and analysis of the changes in haemodynamic and treatment parameters with extubation in unstable patients after 2009 were performed.

Compared with group 1, patients from group 2 were ventilated for shorter duration (p<0.001), had similar re-intubation rates (p=0.50), and needed less volume (p=0.01). In group 2, the unstable patients were not ventilated for longer durations (p=0.19), but had higher re-intubation rates (p=0.03) than the stable patients. Compared with the unstable patients from group 1, the unstable patients from group 2 were ventilated for shorter duration (p<0.001), had similar re-intubation rates (p=0.66), and needed less volume (p=0.006). There was a significant acute and sustained increase in mean arterial pressure with extubation and a parallel reduction in volume requirements and inotrope scores in the unstable patients from group 2.

Timely extubation is universally applicable following the Fontan operation. Early postoperative extubation can be valuable for improving Fontan haemodynamics.

The objectives of this study were to examine which types of social supports – emotional/informational support, tangible support, affectionate support, and positive interactions – are the predictors of health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in adult patients with CHD and to assess the influence of demographic variables and clinical factors on these variables.

In total, 205 adult patients with CHD from the National Heart Institute, Malaysia, were recruited. Patients were first screened by cardiology consultants to ensure they fit the inclusion criteria before filling in questionnaires, which were medical outcome studies – social support survey and AQoL-8D.

All social supports and their subscales were found to have mild-to-moderate significant relationships with physical dimension, psychological dimension, and overall HRQoL; however, only positive interaction, marital status, and types of diagnosis were reported as predictors of HRQoL. Surprisingly, with regard to the physical dimension of quality of life, social supports were not significant predictors, but educational level, marital status, and types of diagnosis were significant predictors. Positive interaction, affectionate support, marital status, and types of diagnosis were again found to be predictors in the aspects of the psychological dimension of quality of life. In conclusion, positive interaction and affectionate support, which include elements of fun, relaxation, love, and care, should be included in the care of adult patients with CHD.

The aim of this study was to identify inter-centre differences in persistent ductus arteriosus treatment and their related outcomes.

We carried out a retrospective, multicentre study including infants between 24+0 and 27+6 weeks of gestation in the period between 2010 and 2011. In all centres, echocardiography was used as the standard procedure to diagnose a patent ductus arteriosus and to document ductal closure.

In total, 367 preterm infants were included. All four participating neonatal ICU had a comparable number of preterm infants; however, differences were observed in the incidence of treatment (33–63%), choice and dosing of medication (ibuprofen or indomethacin), number of pharmacological courses (1–4), and the need for surgical ligation after failure of pharmacological treatment (8–52%). Despite the differences in treatment, we found no difference in short-term morbidity between the centres. Adjusted mortality showed independent risk contribution of gestational age, birth weight, ductal ligation, and perinatal centre.

Using benchmarking as a tool identified inter-centre differences. In these four perinatal centres, the factors that explained the differences in patent ductus arteriosus treatment are quite complex. Timing, choice of medication, and dosing are probably important determinants for successful patent ductus arteriosus closure.

The aim of this study was to investigate the psychosocial needs of both parents of children with CHD (aged 0–18 years) and patients themselves (aged 8–18 years) in the week before cardiac surgery or a catheter intervention.

Eligible participants included all consecutive patients (0–18 years) scheduled to undergo cardiac surgery or a catheter intervention in our hospital between March, 2012 and July, 2013. Psychosocial needs were assessed using a disease-specific questionnaire designed for this study, consisting of a 83-item parent version and a 59-item child version (for children ⩾8 years), each covering five domains: physical/medical, emotional, social, educational/occupational, and health behaviour; two items assessed from whom and in what format psychosocial care was preferred. Quality of life was also assessed.

If parents/patients reported a need for psychosocial care, referral to adequate mental health-care professionals was arranged.

More than 40% of participating parents and >50% of participating children reported a need for psychosocial care on each of the five domains. Needs for psychosocial care for parents themselves were highest for those with children aged 0–12 years. Parents and patients report clear preferences when asked from whom and in what format they would like to receive psychosocial care. Quality of life was relatively high for both parents and patients. Psychosocial care interventions in our hospital increased significantly after the implementation of this study.

Results show that psychosocial care is rated as (very) important by both parents and children during an extremely stressful period of their life.