The basic aim of this article is to argue that world music should be an integral part of any musical curriculum. An extensive example, drawn from Chinese traditional music, outlines potential benefits that the study of world music offers to the music teacher interested in it either for its own sake or as a means of developing pupils' skills at improvisations and composition. The featured example is a composition for erhu (Chinese two-stringed fiddle) by the folk musician Abing. Ideas are raised concerning musical context, analysis, melodic structure, tonality, metre, notation and ornamentation.

This article proposes age and gender as a way of classifying music; it raises awareness of the importance of age–gender classifications of West African musics; and introduces examples of West African musics.

It is argued that the classifications could help in selecting musics for curricular use: they could be used as a framework to choose African musics for school curricula; while the musical examples may be of some use to teachers. Three curricular perspectives – musical, intercultural and multidisciplinary – are suggested, the first of which draws on African drumming procedures and creative work.

Musical criticism lies at the heart of music education. It is argued that there are five fundamental dimensions of musical criticism: control of sonorities; expressive characterisation; structural relationships; personal evaluation; historical and technical context. The first four of these – those directly concerned with response to a musical object or event – are the essential modes of criticism and these can be seen unfolding in the musical development of children. Following the publication in 1986 by Swanwick and Tillman of a musical development model, further research in Cyprus gives supportive results; showing strong agreement between judges on the use of critical criteria for assessing children's compositions and articulating the same sequential order of development. A random selection of children's compositions drawn from over 600 items collected in Cyprus is assessed by independent judges. There are correlations between assigned critical criteria and the age of the children. Thus the pattern of musical development can be seen to parallel a critical hierarchy. From these data we can also assume that, although the sequential order of development may be confirmed, the compositions of the UK children in our sample appear generally to be more advanced than those of their Cyprus peers. The quality and consistency of music education provision seems therefore to have a positive role in the development of critical powers. There are implications for music curriculum development, for assessment procedures and for further work on musical development, and on the relationship of composing to performing and of both to audience listening.

Primary music education programme development and implementation is founded on philosophical beliefs about the purpose of music education.

Primary classroom teachers who ultimately have responsibility for development and implementation of the music education programme formulate their philosophical beliefs about the purpose of music education based on a multitude of variables. Whilst their own past music experiences and education assume significance in the formation of a music education philosophy, the primary music curriculum documents provided by education authorities constitute an important source for teachers' current philosophical opinion about the purpose of music education.

Two philosophical arguments have thus far formed the basis of the purpose of music education in the history of the western world, namely, the intrinsic and extrinsic arguments. Primary music curriculum documents have also been based on one (or perhaps both), of these philosophical views about the purpose of music education.

In this article a discussion of the philosophical foundations of music education, with special reference to primary music education in Australia, is presented. Five primary music curriculum documents will be looked at, and commentary given about the current philosophical status of Australian primary music education and the implications for programme development and implementation.

The author's interest in the role of language in education began while he was a student at Goldsmiths' College. A number of transcripts from lessons are considered, and the dialogue between teacher and pupil is analysed with a view to finding clues about the nature of the musical learning which is taking place. It is the author's view that we should allow children ample opportunity and time to talk about the music they are involved with, since it is through verbal articulation of knowledge that the process of musical learning and creativity can be fostered.

Relaxation clearly plays an important role in music practice and performance. However complete relaxation is neither possible nor musically appropriate. A certain degree of tension is always necessary to enable a suitable level of concentration and musical expression.

Concentration inevitably produces muscular reactions in different parts of the body. These cause problems when they occur in mutually opposing combinations. Common locations for such tension knots or blocks in music practice are the back of the neck, the wrists, and the hands (grasping reflex). Causes include overconcentration, emotional involvement in the music, fear of making mistakes in difficult passages, and insufficiently practised playing movements. The described effects are illustrated by reference to the practice and performance of a piece of piano music.

The article is based on two lectures given in 1987, one at an ESTA conference in Germany, and the other at an EPTA conference in Yugoslavia.