Although apps are increasingly being used to support the diagnosis, treatment and management of mental illness, there is no single means through which costs associated with mental apps are being reimbursed. Furthermore, different apps are amenable to different means of reimbursement as not all apps generate value in the same way.

To provide insights into how apps are currently generating value and being reimbursed across the world, with a particular focus on the situation in the USA.

An international team performed secondary research on how apps are being used and on common pathways to remuneration.

The uses of apps today and in the future are reviewed, the nature of the value delivered by apps is summarised and an overview of app reimbursement in the USA and other countries is provided. Recommendations regarding how payments might be made for apps in the future are discussed.

Currently, apps are being reimbursed through channels with other original purposes. There may be a need to develop an app-specific channel for reimbursement which is analogous to the channels used for devices, drugs and laboratory tests.

Individual- and area-level risk factors for suicide are relatively well-understood but the role of macro social factors such as alienation, social fragmentation or ‘anomie’ is relatively underresearched. Voting choice in the 2016 referendum on the UK's membership of the European Union (EU) provides a potential measure of anomie.

To examine associations between percentage ‘Leave’ votes in the EU referendum and suicide rates in 2015–2017, the period just prior to, and following, the referendum.

National cross-sectional ecological study of 315 English local authority populations. Associations between voting choice in the EU referendum and age-standardised suicide rates, averaged for the years 2015, 2016 and 2017, were examined.

Overall there was a weak, but statistically significant, positive correlation between the local authority-level percentage ‘Leave’ vote in 2016 and the suicide rate 2015–2017: Pearson's correlation coefficient, r = 0.17; P = 0.003. This relationship was explained by populations having an older age distribution, being more deprived and lacking ethnic diversity. However, there was divergence (likelihood ratio test for interaction, χ2 = 7.2, P = 0.007) in the observed associations between London and the provincial regions with Greater London having a moderately strong negative association (r = −0.40; P = 0.02) and the rest of England a weak positive association (r = 0.17; P = 0.004).

Deprivation, older age distribution and a lack of ethnic diversity seems to explain raised suicide risk in Brexit-voting communities. A greater sense of alienation among people feeling ‘left behind’/‘left out’ may have had some influence too, although multilevel modelling of individual- versus area-level data are needed to examine these complex relationships. The incongruent ecological relationship observed for London likely reflect its distinct social, economic and health context.

Access to timely care is a quality standard underpinning many international healthcare models, and long waiting times for child and adolescent mental health services are often reported as a barrier to help-seeking.

The aim of this study was to examine whether young people with more severe problems have shorter waiting times for mental health services.

Multilevel multinomial regression analysis controlling for service-area deprivation, age, gender, ethnicity, referral source and contextual factors was conducted on N = 21 419 episodes of care (mean age 12.37 years (s.d. = 3.71), 11 712 (55%) female) using data from child and adolescent mental health services.

There was high variation in waiting times, which ranged from 0 days to 1629 days (mean 50.65 days (s.d. = 78.03), median 32 days). Compared with young people with less severe problems young people with severe problems, self-harm, psychosis or eating disorders were less likely to experience longer waiting times. Moreover, referrals from sources other than primary care were generally less likely to have longer waiting times than referrals from primary care sources, especially referral from accident and emergency services.

The findings suggest that young people with more severe problems had shorter waiting times. Intermediary information and resources for support before access to services is needed to prevent escalation of problems and to support individuals and families while waiting for care. Interventions to reduce waiting times should be considered without compromising on the quality and experience of care that young people and families deserve when seeking help.

Transition from child-centred to adult mental health services has been reported as challenging for young people. It can be especially difficult for young people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) as they manage the challenges of adolescence and navigate leaving child and adolescent mental health services (CAMHS).

This study examines the predictors of transfer to adult mental health services, and using a qualitative analysis, explores the young people’s experiences of transition.

A UK sample of 118 young people aged 14–21 years, with ASD and additional mental health problems, recruited from four National Health Service trusts were followed up every 12 months over 3 years, as they were discharged from CAMHS. Measures of mental health and rich additional contextual information (clinical, family, social, educational) were used to capture their experiences. Regression and framework analyses were used.

Regression analysis showed having an attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder diagnosis and taking medication were predictors of transfer from child to adult mental health services. Several features of young people's transition experience were found to be associated with positive outcomes and ongoing problems, including family factors, education transitions and levels of engagement with services.

The findings show the importance of monitoring and identifying those young people that might be particularly at risk of negative outcomes and crisis presentations. Although some young people were able to successfully manage their mental health following discharge from CAMHS, others reported levels of unmet need and negative experiences of transition.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is likely to exacerbate the symptoms of poor mental health in family caregivers.

To investigate whether rates of depressive symptomatology increased in caregivers during COVID-19 and whether the unintended consequences of health protective measures, i.e., social isolation, exacerbated this risk. Another aim was to see if caregivers accessed any online/phone psychological support during COVID.

Data (1349 caregivers; 6178 non-caregivers) was extracted from Understanding Society, a UK population-level data-set. The General Health Questionnaire cut-off scores identified those who are likely to have depression.

After adjustment for confounding caregivers had a higher risk of having depressive symptoms compared with non-caregivers, odds ratio (OR) = 1.22 (95% CI 1.05–1.40, P = 0.008) evidenced by higher levels of depression pre-COVID-19 (16.7% caregivers v. 12.1% non-caregivers) and during the COVID-19 pandemic (21.6% caregivers v. 17.9% non-caregivers), respectively. Further, higher levels of loneliness increased the risk of depression symptoms almost four-fold in caregivers, OR = 3.85 (95% 95% CI 3.08–4.85, P < 0.001), whereas accessing therapy attenuated the risk of depression (43%). A total of 60% of caregivers with depression symptoms reported not accessing any therapeutic support (for example online or face to face) during the COVID-19 pandemic.

COVID-19 has had a negative impact on family caregivers’ mental health with loneliness a significant contributor to depressive symptomatology. However, despite these detriments in mental health, the majority of caregivers do not access any online or phone psychiatric support. Finally, psychiatric services and healthcare professionals should aim to focus on reducing feelings of loneliness to support at-risk caregivers.

The incidence of dementia in Black, Asian and minority ethnic (BAME) groups is increasing in the UK, with concern about underdiagnosis and late presentation.

By reviewing referrals to memory clinics from Leicester City we examined whether the following differed by ethnicity: the proportion with a diagnosis of dementia, type of dementia and severity at presentation.

We examined referrals between 2010 and 2017: all those whose ethnicity was recorded as Black (n = 131) and a random sample of 260 Asian and 259 White British referrals. Severity of dementia was assessed by record review. Odds ratios (ORs) were adjusted for general practice, age, gender and year of referral.

A diagnosis of dementia was recorded in 193 (74.5%) White British, 96 (73.3%) Black and 160 (61.5%) Asian referrals. Compared with Asians, White British had twice the adjusted odds of a dementia diagnosis (OR = 1.99 (1.23–3.22). Of those with dementia, Alzheimer's disease was more common in White British (57.0%) than in Asian (43.8%) and Black referrals (51.0%): adjusted OR White British versus Asian 1.76 (1.11–2.77). Of those with dementia, the proportion with moderate/severe disease was highest in White British (66.8%), compared with 61.9% in Asian and 45.8% in Black groups. The adjusted OR for the White versus Black groups was 2.03 (1.10–3.72), with no significant difference between Asian and White British groups.

Differences in confirmed dementia suggest general practitioners have a lower threshold for referral for possible dementia in some BAME groups. Unlike other centres, we found no evidence of greater severity at presentation in Asian and Black groups.

Maternal depression is a notable concern, yet little evidence exists on its economic burden in low- and middle-income countries.

This study assessed societal costs and economic outcomes across pregnancy to 12 months postpartum comparing women with depression with those without depression. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT01977326 (registered on 24 October 2013); Pan African Clinical Trials Registry (www.pactr.org): PACTR201403000676264 (registered on 11 October 2013).

Participants were recruited during the first antenatal visit to primary care clinics in Khayelitsha, Cape Town. In total, 2187 women were screened, and 419 women who were psychologically distressed were retained in the study. Women were interviewed at baseline, 8 months gestation and at 3 and 12 months postpartum; the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression was used to categorise women as having depression or not having depression at each interview. Collected data included sociodemographics; health service costs; user fees; opportunity costs of accessing care; and travelling expenses for the women and their child(ren). Using Markov modelling, the incremental economic burden of maternal depression was estimated across the period.

At 12 months postpartum, women with depression were significantly more likely to be unemployed, to have lower per capita household income, to incur catastrophic costs and to be in a poorer socioeconomic group than those women without depression. Costs were higher for women with depression and their child(ren) at all time points. Modelled provider costs were US$805 among women without depression versus US$1303 in women with depression.

Economic costs and outcomes were worse in perinatal women with depression. The development of interventions to reduce this burden is therefore of significant policy importance.

Computerised cognitive–behavioural therapy (CCBT) in the care pathway has the potential to improve access to psychological therapies and reduce waiting lists within Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services, however, more randomised controlled trials (RCTs) are needed to assess this.

This single-centre RCT pilot study compared a CCBT program (Stressbusters) with an attention control (self-help websites) for adolescent depression at referral to evaluate the clinical and cost-effectiveness of CCBT (trial registration: ISRCTN31219579).

The trial ran within community and clinical settings. Adolescents (aged 12–18) presenting to their primary mental health worker service for low mood/depression support were assessed for eligibility at their initial appointment, 139 met inclusion criteria (a 33-item Mood and Feelings Questionnaire score of ≥20) and were randomised to Stressbusters (n = 70) or self-help websites (n = 69) using remote computerised single allocation. Participants completed mood, quality of life (QoL) and resource-use measures at intervention completion, and 4 and 12 months post-intervention. Changes in self-reported measures and completion rates were assessed by group.

There was no significant difference between CCBT and the website group at 12 months. Both showed improvements on all measures. QoL measures in the intervention group showed earlier improvement compared with the website group. Costs were lower in the intervention group but the difference was not statistically significant. The cost-effectiveness analysis found just over a 65% chance of Stressbusters being cost-effective compared with websites. The 4-month follow-up results from the initial feasibility study are reported separately.

CCBT and self-help websites may both have a place in the care pathway for adolescents with depression.

Depressive symptoms show different trajectories throughout childhood and adolescence that may have different consequences for adult outcomes.

To examine trajectories of childhood depressive symptoms and their association with education and employment outcomes in early adulthood.

We estimated latent trajectory classes from participants with repeated measures of self-reported depressive symptoms between 11 and 24 years of age and examined their association with two distal outcomes: university degree and those not in employment, education or training at age 24.

Our main analyses (n = 9399) yielded five heterogenous trajectories of depressive symptoms. The largest group found (70.5% of participants) had a stable trajectory of low depressive symptoms (stable–low). The other four groups had symptom profiles that reached full-threshold levels at different developmental stages and for different durations. We identified the following groups: childhood–limited (5.1% of participants) with full-threshold symptoms at ages 11–13; childhood–persistent (3.5%) with full-threshold symptoms at ages 13–24; adolescent onset (9.4%) with full-threshold symptoms at ages 17–19; and early-adult onset (11.6%) with full-threshold symptoms at ages 22–24. Relative to the majority ‘stable–low’ group, the other four groups all exhibited higher risks of one or both adult outcomes.

Accurate identification of depressive symptom trajectories requires data spanning the period from early adolescence to early adulthood. Consideration of changes in, as well as levels of, depressive symptoms could improve the targeting of preventative interventions in early-to-mid adolescence.

Eating disorder services are often separated into child and adolescent eating disorder services (CAEDSs) and adult eating disorder services (AEDSs). Most patients in CAEDSs present with first-episode illness of short duration, which with appropriate treatment, have a good prognosis. However, some individuals receive further treatment as adults. Little is known about service utilisation in adulthood following childhood/adolescent treatment of an eating disorder.

This study aims (a) to estimate the proportion of patients in a CAEDS who use mental health services as young adults, (b) to delineate service utilisation following treatment in CAEDSs and (c) to identify factors in CAEDSs that predict service utilisation in young adulthood.

A consecutive cohort of 322 patients (aged 13–17 years) seen in a CAEDS in the UK over a 5-year period were included in this audit. Data regarding their use of UK-wide adult mental health services as young adults (i.e. when aged 18–25) were extracted from local and national hospital records.

A total of 68.3% of CAEDS patients received no mental health treatment as young adults. Although 13% of people seen in a CAEDS had brief eating disorder treatment as young adults, 10% received longer/or more intensive eating disorder treatment. Overall, 10.8% transitioned directly to an AEDS and 7.6% were re-referred following discharge from CAEDS. In our sample, older age and increased use of CAEDSs predicted increased eating disorder treatment in young adulthood.

Our results indicate that most people seen in CAEDSs do not receive further mental health treatment as young adults. Several features in CAEDSs distinguish mental health service utilisation in young adulthood, which were identified clinically and could be targeted during treatment.

Given that smoking results in poor physical and mental health, reducing tobacco harm is of high importance. Recommendations published by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence to reduce smoking harms included provision of support, use of nicotine containing products and commissioning of smoking cessation services.

This report explores the difficulties in obtaining such support, as observed in a recently conducted randomised controlled trial in patients with severe mental ill health, and outlines suggestions to improve facilitation of provision.

Data collected during the Smoking Cessation Intervention for Severe Mental Ill Health Trial (SCIMITAR+) (trial Registration ISRCTN72955454), was reviewed to identify the difficulties experienced, across the trial, with regards to access and provision of nicotine replacements therapy (NRT). Actions taken to facilitate access and provision of NRT were collated to outline how provision could be better facilitated.

Access to NRT varied across study settings and in some instances proved impossible for patients to access. Difficulty in access was irrespective of a diagnosis of severe mental ill health. Where NRT was provided, this was not always provided in accordance with NICE guidelines.

Availability of smoking cessation support, and NRT provision would benefit from being made clearer, simpler and more easily accessible so as to enhance smoking cessation rates.

Identifying profiles of people with mental and substance use disorders who use emergency departments may help guide the development of interventions more appropriate to their particular characteristics and needs.

To develop a typology for the frequency of visits to the emergency department for mental health reasons based on the Andersen model.

Questionnaires were completed by patients who attended an emergency department (n = 320), recruited in Quebec (Canada), and administrative data were obtained related to sociodemographic/socioeconomic characteristics, mental health diagnoses including alcohol and drug use, and emergency department and mental health service utilization. A cluster analysis was performed, identifying needs, predisposing and enabling factors that differentiated subclasses of participants according to frequency of emergency department visits for mental health reasons.

Four classes were identified. Class 1 comprised individuals with moderate emergency department use and low use of other health services; mostly young, economically disadvantaged males with substance use disorders. Class 2 comprised individuals with high emergency department and specialized health service use, with multiple mental and substance use disorders. Class 3 comprised middle-aged, economically advantaged females with common mental disorders, who made moderate use of emergency departments but consulted general practitioners. Class 4 comprised older individuals with multiple chronic physical illnesses co-occurring with mental disorders, who made moderate use of the emergency department, but mainly consulted general practitioners.

The study found heterogeneity in emergency department use for mental health reasons, as each of the four classes represented distinct needs, predisposing and enabling factors. As such, interventions should be tailored to different classes of patients who use emergency departments, based on their characteristics.

Subjective cognitive difficulties are common in mental illness and have a negative impact on role functioning. Little is understood about subjective cognition and the longitudinal relationship with depression and anxiety symptoms in young people.

To examine the relationship between changes in levels of depression and anxiety and changes in subjective cognitive functioning over 3 months in help-seeking youth.

This was a cohort study of 656 youth aged 12–25 years attending Australian headspace primary mental health services. Subjective changes in cognitive functioning (rated as better, same, worse) reported after 3 months of treatment was assessed using the Neuropsychological Symptom Self-Report. Multivariate multinomial logistic regression analysis was conducted to evaluate the impact of baseline levels of and changes in depression (nine-item Patient Health Questionnaire; PHQ9) and anxiety symptoms (seven-item Generalised Anxiety Disorder scale; GAD7) on changes in subjective cognitive function at follow-up while controlling for covariates.

With a one-point reduction in PHQ9 at follow-up, there was an estimated 11–18% increase in ratings of better subjective cognitive functioning at follow-up, relative to stable cognitive functioning. A one-point increase in PHQ9 from baseline to follow-up was associated with 7–14% increase in ratings of worse subjective cognitive functioning over 3 months, relative to stable cognitive functioning. A similar attenuated pattern of findings was observed for the GAD7.

A clear association exists between subjective cognitive functioning outcomes and changes in self-reported severity of affective symptoms in young people over the first 3 months of treatment. Understanding the timing and mechanisms of these associations is needed to tailor treatment.

Carers are key providers of care and support to mental health patients and mental health policies consistently mandate carer involvement. Understanding carers' experiences of and views about assessment for involuntary admission and subsequent detention is crucial to efforts to improve policy and practice.

We aimed to synthesise qualitative evidence of carers' experiences of the assessment and detention of their family and friends under mental health legislation.

We searched five bibliographic databases, reference lists and citations. Studies were included if they collected data using qualitative methods and the patients were aged 18 or older; reported on carer experiences of assessment or detention under mental health legislation anywhere in the world; and were published in peer-reviewed journals. We used meta-synthesis.

The review included 23 papers. Themes were consistent across time and setting and related to the emotional impact of detention; the availability of support for carers; the extent to which carers felt involved in decision-making; relationships with patients and staff during detention; and the quality of care provided to patients. Carers often described conflicting feelings of relief coupled with distress and anxiety about how the patient might cope and respond. Carers also spoke about the need for timely and accessible information, supportive and trusting relationships with mental health professionals, and of involvement as partners in care.

Research is needed to explore whether and how health service and other interventions can improve the involvement and support of carers prior to, during and after the detention of family members and friends.

Mood disorders, i.e. major depressive disorder (MDD) and bipolar disorders, are leading sources of disability worldwide. Currently available treatments do not yield remission in approximately a third of patients with a mood disorder. This is in part because these treatments do not target a specific core pathology underlying these heterogeneous disorders. In recent years, abnormal inflammatory processes have been identified as putative pathophysiological mechanisms and treatment targets in mood disorders, particularly among individuals with treatment-resistant conditions.

In this selective review, we aimed to summarise recent advances in the field of immunopsychiatry, including emerging pathophysiological models and findings from treatment ttrials of immunomodulatory agents for both MDD and bipolar disorders.

We performed a literature review by searching Medline for clinical trials of immunomodulating agents as monotherapy or adjunctive treatments in MDD and bipolar disorders. Included studies are randomised controlled trials (RCTs), cluster RCTs or cross-over trials of immunomodulating agents that had an active comparator or a placebo-arm.

Current evidence shows an association between inflammation and mood symptoms. However, there is conflicting evidence on whether this link is causal.

Future studies should focus on identifying specific neurobiological underpinnings for the putative causal association between an activated inflammatory response and mood disorders. Results of these studies are needed before further treatment trials of immunomodulatory agents can be justified.

Approximately 18% of adults with intellectual disabilities living in the community display behaviours that challenge. Intensive support teams (ISTs) have been recommended to provide high-quality responsive care aimed at avoiding unnecessary admissions and reducing lengthy in-patient stays.

To identify and describe the geographical distribution and characteristics of ISTs, and to develop a typology of IST service models in England.

We undertook a national cross-sectional survey of 73 ISTs. A hierarchical cluster analysis was performed based on six prespecified grouping factors (mode of referrals, size of case-load, use of outcome measures, staff composition, hours of operation and setting of service). A simplified form of thematic analysis was used to explore free-text responses.

Cluster analysis identified two models of IST provision: (a) independent and (b) enhanced provision based around a community intellectual disability service. ISTs aspire to adopt person-centred care, mostly use the framework of positive behaviour support for behaviour that challenges, and report concerns about organisational and wider context issues.

This is the first study to examine the delivery of intensive support to people with intellectual disability and behaviour that challenges. A two-cluster model of ISTs was found to have statistical validity and clinical utility. The clinical heterogeneity indicates that further evaluation of these service models is needed to establish their clinical and cost-effectiveness.

Little is known about the trend and predictors of 21-year mortality and suicide patterns in persons with schizophrenia.

To explore the trend and predictors of 21-year mortality and suicide in persons with schizophrenia in rural China.

This longitudinal follow-up study included 510 persons with schizophrenia who were identified in a mental health survey of individuals (≥15 years old) in 1994 in six townships of Xinjin County, Chengdu, China, and followed up in three waves until 2015. Kaplan–Meier survival analysis and Cox hazard regressions were conducted.

Of the 510 participants, 196 died (38.4% mortality) between 1994 and 2015; 13.8% of the deaths (n = 27) were due to suicide. Life expectancy was lower for men than for women (50.6 v. 58.5 years). Males consistently showed higher rates of mortality and suicide than females. Older participants had higher mortality (hazard ratio HR = 1.03, 95% CI 1.01–1.05) but lower suicide rates (HR = 0.95, 95% CI 0.93–0.98) than their younger counterparts. Poor family attitudes were associated with all-cause mortality and death due to other causes; no previous hospital admission and a history of suicide attempts independently predicted death by suicide.

Our findings suggest there is a high mortality and suicide rate in persons with schizophrenia in rural China, with different predictive factors for mortality and suicide. It is important to develop culture-specific, demographically tailored and community-based mental healthcare and to strengthen family intervention to improve the long-term outcome of persons with schizophrenia.