Four aspects of lighting which may influence the behaviour and physiology of housed poultry are light intensity, photoperiod, light source and wavelength. These factors are frequently manipulated in an attempt to improve productivity and to facilitate management practices. This review examines the effects of such manipulation upon the welfare of the birds. The majority of papers on lighting in poultry houses deal with their effects upon performance, rather than on factors associated with behaviour and health which may impinge upon welfare. Data about the preferences of birds for different lighting conditions are almost entirely lacking, but the practice of housing birds in relatively low light intensity is considered likely to lead to sensory deprivation in species where vision is important. Tentative recommendations are given pending the results of future research as to appropriate light intensity, photoperiod and light sources for domestic poultry.

We discuss the properties of controllability and complexity in novel object enrichment, their definition and present a critique of previous work related to them. We address the relationship between control and complexity, the evolutionary basis of their attractiveness and suggest that the acquisition of control may be a more enriching process than its execution. We propose that, although little work has been directed at separating their relative contributions to enrichment, controllability appears more important than complexity. We discuss the ways in which objects can be responsive both in terms of the predictability of the response and the ‘grade’ of actor-object interaction.

Rat and mouse control methods potentially affect the welfare of many millions of animals every year. Here, the humaneness of the methods used in the UK and the USA is assessed in terms of their speed and mode of action, the appearance and behaviour of affected animals, experiences of human victims, long-term effects on animals that survive exposure, and welfare risks to non-target animals. Several methods emerge as relatively humane: cyanide, alpha-chloralose, electrocution traps and well-designed snap traps all usually kill swiftly and with little distress. Preventative methods such as rodent-proofing are also humane, as well as an essential — and probably under-used — component of effective control. However, anticoagulant poisons, the most common means of controlling rodents, generally take several days to kill, during which time they cause distress, disability and/or pain. Sub-lethally affected animals are also likely to experience haemorrhages and their sequelae, and carnivores feeding on affected rodents may be secondarily poisoned. The acute rodenticides zinc phosphide and calciferol are also generally inhumane, the former typically causing severe pain for several hours, and the latter, pain and illness for several days. Sticky boards, to which rodents become adhered by the feet and fur until they are killed or simply eventually die, also raise very serious welfare concerns. This evidence highlights remarkable paradoxes in the way society treats different classes of animal, and argues for more education, legislation and research targeted at reducing the vast numbers of rodents currently killed inhumanely.

This study investigated the influence of density and floor area on stress and the adaptation process of cats in animal shelters and boarding catteries. Sixty-three rescued cats were observed on 113 days in a shelter at group densities of 0.3-0.9 animals m−2. In addition, 49 rescued cats were observed during their first week after being admitted to a control group housed at a density of 0.5 or 0.8 animals m−2, and 44 boarding cats were observed in single cages of either 0.7 or 1.0 m2 floor area during their first week in a cattery.

Group density was highly correlated with the stress level of animals housed in groups. A stress level of ‘weakly tense ‘ was reached when the group density reached 0.6 animals m−2. During the first week of their stay, stress levels among cats which had been newly admitted to groups housed at 0.5 or 0.8 animals m−2 did not differ significantly. On days 1, 2 and 6 after admission, boarding cats housed in single cages with a floor area of 1.0m2 had significantly lower stress levels than animals in cages with a floor area of 0.7m2.

Group density was clearly shown to influence the adaptation process of cats which were housed for several weeks in groups. In order to avoid high stress levels, a group density of 0.6 animals m−2 should not be exceeded. However, the minimum spatial requirement for singly housed cats remains unknown.

The welfare of production animals provokes wide social discussion among the public, yet, despite this, farmers’ voices and their representations of animal welfare are rarely heard, even though farmers are the ones actually able to improve animal welfare. Farmers’ perceptions of what constitutes animal welfare and how it may be improved can differ from those of consumers and other stakeholders, and therefore it is crucial to understand what farmers mean when they talk about improving animal welfare. To chart farmers’ perceptions, we conducted qualitative interviews and a questionnaire study using the theory of planned behaviour as a conceptual framework. We found that the farmers perceived the improvement of animal welfare as four specific, practical attitude objects (providing animals with a favourable environment; taking care of animal health; treating the animals humanely; and taking care of the farmer's own well-being) and two different but often overlapping general attitudinal dimensions (the instrumental and intrinsic evaluations of animal welfare). The farmers’ intentions to improve animal welfare were best explained by their attitudes towards the specific welfare-improving actions. The concept of the improvement of animal welfare examined in this study outlines measures to improve animal welfare from the farmers’ point of view and discusses their influence. Our study demonstrates that by adapting a valid conceptual framework and applying relevant qualitative and quantitative methods that support each other, we are able to elucidate the underlying meanings and values in farmers’ views on improving animal welfare.

Modern genetics has given us some very efficient tools with which to alter the characteristics of animals. To date, farm animal breeders have mainly used these tools to increase productivity. Thus, each new generation of farm animals matures faster, yields more milk, or produces more meat or eggs, than the previous one. Despite these apparent benefits, modern farm animal breeding has had severe negative consequences, including effects on the quality of the animals’ lives and biodiversity. The aim of this paper is to discuss the goals and consequences of farm animal breeding within an ethical context. First, a description of what has happened to broilers and dairy cattle as breeders have pursued the goal of ever more efficient production is given. Second, the ethical values that ought to underlie future breeding schemes are discussed. It is suggested that there are in fact two very different ethical approaches: the ‘quality of life-based ‘ approach and the ‘preservationist ‘ approach. A view combining elements from both approaches is advanced. Finally, an example is given of how it is possible, in practice, to pursue an ethically defensible breeding goal without compromising production efficiency.

Group housing of male laboratory mice often leads to welfare problems due to aggressive behaviour. From a welfare perspective, individual housing is not a preferred solution to these problems - and so we sought other ways of reducing aggression between male mice. Aggression peaks after disturbances such as cage cleaning. Transfer of olfactory cues during cage cleaning procedures has been repeatedly proposed as a means of reducing these peaks in aggression. In this study, the aggression-modulating properties of olfactory cues were studied by investigating the effects of their source and distribution on aggression after cage cleaning in groups of male BALB/c mice. The physiological effects of aggression on individuals within a group were also monitored.

Our results indicated that neither kinship nor distribution of urine marks affected aggression. Olfactory cues from nesting and bedding material, however, affected aggression to a marked degree: transfer of nesting material reduced aggression significantly, while transfer of sawdust containing urine and faeces seemed to intensify aggression. None of the physiological data revealed any differences between dominant and subordinate animals, nor any correlations with aggressiveness, except that dominant animals gained weight more rapidly than subordinate ones. We conclude that the transfer of nesting material will reduce aggression, or at least slow down its development, and thus aid the reduction of social tension due to cage cleaning.

This paper reviews the history of the establishment of dog breeds, summarizes current health and resultant welfare problems and makes some positive suggestions for their resolution. Some breed standards and selection practices run counter to the welfare interests of dogs, to the extent that some breeds are characterized by traits that may be difficult to defend on welfare grounds. Meanwhile, little selection pressure seems to be exerted on some traits that would improve animal welfare and produce dogs better suited to modern society. Unfortunately, the incidence of certain inherited defects in some breeds is unacceptably high, while the number of registered animals of certain breeds within some countries is so low as to make it almost impossible for breeders to avoid mating close relatives. There are several constructive ways to overcome these challenges. Breed associations can ensure that reduction of welfare problems is one of their major aims; they can review breed standards; they can embrace modern technology for animal identification and pedigree checking; they can allow the introduction of ‘new ‘ genetic material into closed stud-books; and they can encourage collaboration with geneticists in identifying and using DNA markers for the control of inherited disorders. There should be a concerted effort to produce and evaluate as companion animals first-cross (F1) hybrids from matings between various pairs of breeds. Finally, geneticists must learn to communicate their science better and in a language that non-geneticists can understand.

Differential leucocyte counts and plasma activities of the muscle enzyme, creatine kinase, have been determined in blood samples obtained from broiler chickens, immediately prior to and following road transportation from farm to processing plant for slaughter. These parameters are proposed as indicators of physiological stress based on previous findings.

Heterophil:lymphocyte ratios and plasma creatine kinase activities increased and eosinophil counts were decreased during the journey in birds tranported in both July and October when the curtain sides of the vehicles were open or closed respectively.

These findings are consistent with the presence of physiological stress during road transportation. The thermal microenvironments to which birds are exposed in transit are thought to represent one of the sources of this ‘transportation stress’.

The common practice of preventing equine stereotypic behaviour in the UK may be of concern, from a welfare perspective, if these behaviours constitute a coping response to a suboptimal environment. The aim of this study was to assess the putative function of these behaviours by measuring behavioural and physiological parameters i) before and after stereotypy prevention; ii) before and after stereotypy performance; and iii) in response to opiate antagonist (naloxone) administration.

The crib-strap significantly (P = 0.05) elevated mean plasma Cortisol levels in crib-biting horses; a similar, although not significant trend (P = 0.07) was also observed for the weaving group during the anti-weave bar treatment. Both crib-strap and anti-weave bar significantly (P < 0.05) elevated plasma Cortisol levels in the control horses. Although the latter result prevented a definite conclusion being drawn about the function of equine stereotypies, the results did indicate that the use of the crib-strap and anti-weave bar is stressful to the horse.

Plasma Cortisol level was significantly (P = 0.04) higher immediately prior to the onset of stereotypy followed by a significant reduction post-stereotypy. This suggested that both crib-biting and weaving have a coping function to reduce stress levels in the animal.

Naloxone significantly reduced crib-biting by 84 per cent (P = 0.05) but it did not reduce weaving behaviour, indicating that crib-biting is a reward behaviour. However, resting behaviour was also significantly (P = 0.02) increased in crib-biting horses, suggesting that the stereotypy reduction was due to a sedative effect of the opiate antagonist. The latter was not measured, however, in control or weaving animals, and thus may be interpreted differently. The welfare implications of these results are discussed.

The development of accurate measures of animal emotions is important for improving and promoting animal welfare. Cognitive bias indicates the effect of emotional states on cognitive processes, such as memory, attention, and judgement. Cognitive bias tests complement existing behavioural and physiological measures for assessing the valence of animal emotions indirectly. The judgement bias test has been used to assess emotional states in non-human animals; mainly in laboratory settings. The aim of this review is to summarise the findings on the use of the judgement bias test approach in assessing emotions in non-human animals, focusing in particular on farm livestock. The evidence suggests that it is possible to manipulate affective states and induce judgement bias effects in farm livestock. In addition, the results support the effectiveness of manipulating environmental variables for inducing negative or positive affective states. However, the evidence from farm livestock does not consistently confirm the directionality of the hypotheses. The use of specific strategies to induce positive or negative judgement bias, such as the manipulation of housing conditions, could account for the inconsistency of findings. The study of cognitive processes related to emotional states in livestock has great potential to advance and improve our understanding of animal welfare.

This study tests the hypothesis that growth rate and bodyweight affect walking ability in broilers by comparing objective measurements of the spatial and temporal gait parameters of several groups of birds. Two strains of birds were used (relaxed and selected), raised on two feeding regimes (ad-libitum and restricted), and culled at the same final bodyweight (commercial cull weight of 2.4 kg). The ad-libitum-fed selected birds walked more slowly, with lower cadences, and took shorter steps. The steps were wider, and the toes were pointed outwards, resulting in a wider walking base. They kept their feet in contact with the ground for longer periods, having longer percentage stance times, shorter percentage swing times and increased double-contact times compared to the relaxed birds. These changes serve to increase stability during walking and are a likely consequence of the morphological changes in the selected broiler — in particular, the rapid growth of breast muscle moving the centre of gravity forward, and the relatively short legs compared to their bodyweight (see Corr et al, pp 145-157, this issue). This altered gait would be very inefficient and would rapidly tire the birds, and could help to explain the low level of activity seen in the modern broiler.

From two weeks of age female broiler breeder chickens were fed either on a commercial daily ration (R), twice that amount (2R), or ad libitum (AL). Motivation to eat in R and 2R birds was compared every third week with that of AL birds subjected to 3-72h food deprivation. AL and 2R birds grew three and two times faster than R birds to 20 weeks, and AL birds ate two to four times as much per day as R birds, depending on age and on whether birds of the same age or weight were compared. When feeding motivation was measured in 16min tests with an operant procedure, numbers of responses by R and 2R birds were not related in a consistent way to the time since their daily meal ended Responses by AL birds were correlated consistently with the preceding period of food deprivation, but it was not possible to express hunger in R and 2R birds in terms of equivalent deprivation in AL birds, as intended, because feeding motivation in the two situations differed in magnitude. Instead, it was calculated that motivation to eat in R and 2R birds, from 8 to 20 weeks, was 3.6 and 1.9 times greater than that of maximally (72h) deprived AL birds. Another measure of feeding motivation with different birds, rate of eating in 10min tests, produced a similar index of hunger with 2R but not R birds. It is concluded that broiler breeders fed on the commercial ration eat only a quarter to a half as much as they would with free access to food, and that they are highly motivated to eat at all times. The modern broiler breeder industry is caught in a welfare dilemma, since on the one hand stock appear to be chronically hungry, while on the other hand less severe food restriction leads to reduced fertility and health problems.

For the detection and assessment of pain in animals both behavioural and physiological measurements are necessary. Cutaneous receptors which responded to noxious stimulation (nociceptors) have been identified in birds and have been characterized physiologically in the chicken. Following cutaneous nociceptive stimulation the chicken showed cardiovascular and characteristic behavioural changes consistent with those seen in mammals and indicative of pain perception. Following major burn trauma (partial beak amputation) there was behavioural and electrophysiological evidence fora pain-free period lasting several hours. This pain-free period was followed by pain-related behaviour with both anatomical and physiological evidence for long-term chronic pain.

While pain has been assessed following nociceptive stimulation and following trauma the painful consequences of chronic disease have not been investigated Spontaneous degenerative joint disease is widespread in certain strains of intensively reared poultry, and while we do not know what effect joint degeneration has on the joint capsule receptors, recent work has shown in the joint capsule of birds there are similar receptor types to those found in mammals and it seems likely that joint degeneration in birds may be accompanied by painful sensations.

Experimental work has clearly detected painful conditions in birds but the alleviation of pain with analgesic drugs is not possible at present because analgesic agents have not been systematically investigated in birds.

Comparing pain in birds with mammals it is clear that, with regard to the anatomical, physiological and behavioural parameters measured, there are no major differences and therefore the ethical considerations normally afforded to mammals should be extended to birds.

The field of welfare science and public concern for animal welfare is growing, with the focus broadening from animals on farms to those in zoos and aquaria. Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) are the most common captive cetaceans, and relevant regulatory standards are principally resource-based and regarded as minimum requirements. In this study, the farm animal Welfare Quality® assessment was adapted to measure the welfare of bottlenose dolphins, with a similar proportion of animal-based measures (58.3%). The ‘C-Well® ‘ assessment included eleven criterion and 36 species-specific measures developed in situ at three marine mammal zoological facilities, tested for feasibility and accuracy, and substantiated by published literature on wild and captive dolphins and veterinary and professional expertise. C-Well® scores can be calculated for each measure or combined to achieve an overall score, which allows for the comparison of welfare among individuals, demographics, and facilities. This work represents a first step in quantifying and systematically measuring welfare among captive cetaceans and can be used as a model for future development in zoos and aquaria, as well as a means to support benchmarking, industry best practices, and certification.

The severity of respiratory distress occurring prior to loss of posture during exposure to: 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 or 90 per cent carbon dioxide in air; 2 or 5 per cent residual oxygen in argon; 30 per cent carbon dioxide in argon with either 2 or 5 per cent residual oxygen; or 40 per cent carbon dioxide in argon with either 2 or 5 per cent residual oxygen, was subjectively determined in pigs from their behaviour. The results indicated that exposure to 2 per cent oxygen in argon (anoxia) induced minimal respiratory distress, 30 per cent carbon dioxide in argon with 2 per cent residual oxygen induced a moderate distress and exposure to all the concentrations of carbon dioxide in air induced severe respiratory distress in the pigs. From the animal welfare point of view, using 2 per cent oxygen in argon (anoxia) appears to be the optimum choice for gas stunning pigs. Secondly, a mixture of 30 per cent carbon dioxide in argon with 2 per cent residual oxygen is preferred to 90 per cent carbon dioxide in air.

The measurement of ‘cognitive bias’ has recently emerged as a powerful tool for assessing animal welfare. Cognitive bias was initially, and widely, studied in humans, and describes the way in which particular emotions are associated with biases in information processing. People suffering from clinical levels of anxiety or depression, for example, interpret ambiguous events more negatively than do non-anxious or non-depressed people. Development of methods for use with non-human animals has revealed similar biases in several species of mammals and birds, and one invertebrate. However, cognitive bias has not been previously explored in any species of non-human primate, despite specific concerns raised about the welfare of these animals in captivity. Here, we describe a touchscreen-based cognitive-bias task developed for use with captive rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Monkeys were initially trained on a ‘Go/No-Go’ operant task, in which they learned to touch one of two lines that differed in size in order to receive a reward (food), and to desist from touching the other line to avoid a mildly aversive stimulus (delay to the next trial and white noise). In testing sessions, the monkeys were presented with lines of intermediate size. We measured whether touchscreen responses to these ambiguous stimuli were affected by husbandry procedures (environmental enrichment, and a statutory health check involving restraint and ketamine hydrochloride injection) presumed to induce positive and negative shifts in affective state, respectively. Monkeys made fewer responses to ambiguous stimuli post health check compared to during the phase of enrichment suggesting greater expectation of negative outcomes following the health check compared to during enrichment. Shifts in affective state following standard husbandry procedures may therefore be associated with changes in information processing similar to those demonstrated in anxious and depressed humans, and in a number of other taxa.

Behavioural problems directly affect the welfare of dogs and cats. The existence of a behavioural problem is a factor in the euthanasia and relinquishment of animals to shelters — a significant proportion of companion animals that are abandoned and euthanased are attributed to behavioural problems. Some behavioural problems are linked to stress and anxiety. In order to prevent and treat behavioural problems it is essential to have good epidemiological data. Most studies regarding the prevalence of behavioural problems use data from veterinary behaviourists. To our knowledge, no studies regarding the prevalence of small animal behavioural problems have been conducted in Spain. Therefore, a study was designed to estimate different aspects of canine and feline behavioural problems in Spain from the perspective of the veterinary practitioner. Of 433 valid questionnaires returned during a six month period, 46.2% of veterinarians referred cases to veterinary behaviourists and 12.3% to dog trainers; 34.7% never referred cases. Destructiveness, aggression and house soiling were the most frequent complaints regarding behavioural problems in dogs, whereas house soiling was clearly considered the main behavioural complaint in cats, followed by furniture scratching and excessive vocalisation. Behavioural modification was considered the most effective treatment for dogs, followed by drugs and castration. In cats the most effective treatment was castration, followed by drug therapy and behavioural modification.

Crating sows in farrowing systems greatly restricts their normal behaviour, which is usually justified by the assumption that piglet mortality is higher with loose-housed sows. Based on experiments showing that this is not the case, farrowing crates were banned in Switzerland in 1997. Since then, many farms have introduced loose farrowing systems, enabling a comparison of piglet mortality in farrowing systems with and without crates based on a large sample size. Data of a sow-recording scheme (UFA2000) were analysed using generalised linear mixed-effects models with an underlying Poisson distribution. In 2002 and 2003, the average total piglet mortality on 173 farms (n = 18,824 litters) with loose farrowing systems amounted to 1.40 piglets per litter and did not differ from that of 482 farms (n = 44,837 litters) with crates (1.42 piglets per litter). Nevertheless, the number of crushed piglets was significantly higher in pens with loose-housed sows (0.62 versus 0.52 piglets per litter), whereas the number of piglets that died for other reasons was significantly higher in crates (0.78 versus 0.89 piglets per litter). Total piglet mortality was influenced by litter size at birth, age of the sow and season. Consequently, evaluation of the reproductive data of commercial farms shows that no more piglet losses occur in loose farrowing pens, common nowadays in Switzerland, than in farrowing pens with crates, and that litter size at birth is the main influence on piglet losses.

How and why dog owners select a specific breed may impact upon the health of the dog they acquire, and upon the wider health of the breed they select. Brachycephalic breeds are rapidly increasing in popularity despite increasing evidence linking brachycephalism with chronic and severe health conditions. This study used a questionnaire to explore pre-, during and post-purchase behaviours and attitudes of dog-owners who own popular brachycephalic dog breeds (n = 3 breeds) compared to popular non-brachycephalic dog breeds (n = 7 breeds). The survey received 1,427 valid responses. Brachycephalic breed owners were younger, more likely to live with children, and to be buying their chosen breed for the first time. The factor that most highly influenced brachycephalic owners’ decisions to buy their breed was appearance, followed by breed size suited to lifestyle, good dog breed for children and good companion breed. Perceived health of the breed was less influential in decision-making for brachycephalic owners compared to non-brachycephalic owners. The way in which owners acquired their dog differed by breed type, with brachycephalic owners more likely to use puppyselling websites to find their dog, less likely to see either parent of their puppy, and less likely to ask to see any health records. Despite many brachycephalic breed health issues being directly related to conformation, appearance remains the most significant determinant in why people desire these breeds. More targeted educational interventions are needed to change buyer attitudes and, if ineffective, other more direct mechanisms (eg legislation) may be required to protect canine welfare.