Human activities may cause conservation concerns when animal populations or ecosystems are harmed and animal welfare concerns when individuals are harmed. In general, people are concerned with one or the other, as the concepts may be regarded as separate or even at odds. An online purposive survey of 339 British Columbians explored differences between groups that varied by gender, residency, wildlife engagement level and value orientation (conservation-oriented or animal welfare-oriented), to see how they rated the level of harm to wildlife caused by different human activities. Women, urban residents, those with low wildlife engagement, and welfare-orientated participants generally scored activities as more harmful than their counterparts, but all groups were very similar in their rankings. Activities that destroy or alter habitat (urban development, pollution, resource development and agriculture) were rated consistently as most harmful by all groups, including the most conservation-oriented and the most welfare-oriented. Where such a high level of agreement exists, wildlife managers should be able to design management actions that will address both conservation and animal welfare concerns. However, the higher level of concern expressed by female, low engagement and welfare-oriented participants for activities that involve direct killing indicates a need for wildlife managers to consult beyond traditional stakeholders.

This paper proposes a system that uses intrinsic study data to provide a clear visualisation of the stresses involved during the animal's life history that can be applied to all types of studies, even those not requiring invasive techniques. Thus, it provides an opportunity for researchers to identify and refine key events which impact on the welfare of an animal, and to explain clearly the totality of any necessary harms when justifying the research. Assessment of animal welfare depends on measurement of a number of parameters which will vary according to species, the animal's environment and the scientific procedure, all of which are inter-related. Currently, there are few tools to assess the effects of lifetime events on welfare or even, in some cases, to recognise that they have an impact on the level of suffering. A matrix to assess the combined effects of environment, experimental and contingent events on welfare has been applied, retrospectively, to programmes of work involving macaques (Macaca mulatta and M. fascicularis). Lifetime records, available for animals from their birth in the breeding colony through to experimental use in vaccine efficacy evaluation studies, were analysed as a robust validation test for the assessment matrix and refinement of the way in which information on these events is captured. A meaningful assessment method is required prospectively for project licence applications and retrospectively for licence review or decisions on re-use. The analysis will provide information that would support the application of refinements that would optimally enhance the lives of experimental animals.

The ability to evaluate the welfare of non-human animals accurately and objectively is influenced by a variety of factors including the nature of our relationships with them. Subjective biases in the perception of an animal's quality of life can have either positive or negative consequences for its welfare and are likely to be particularly exaggerated in the case of companion animals, such as dogs, cats and other pet species, with which people tend to form strong anthropomorphic, attachment-based relationships. The consequences of these subjective biases are likely to be further exacerbated by the fact that many of the physical and behavioural attributes that humans find appealing, and have selected for, in companion animals, are inherently detrimental to their welfare. Using a range of examples, this paper explores some of the complex ways in which anthropomorphism and subjectivity can cloud our ability to make reliable judgements concerning the welfare of companion animals, even in the face of seemingly obvious and overt indicators of pain and suffering.

In southwestern England, red deer, Cervus elaphus, are culled by rifle (‘stalking’) or by hunting with hounds (‘hunting’). We compare the welfare costs of the two culling methods. Observations of hunts revealed that likely stressors such as close proximity to humans and hounds, active pursuit, noise, obstruction and physical restraint prior to despatch were very common. Other stressors, such as wounding, were rare. The blood profiles of hunted deer were compared both with injured deer, which were put down because they were thought to be suffering, and with stags stalked in the rutting season, when mature males rapidly lose weight and may be damaged in fights. Extensively hunted deer did not differ from severely injured deer in measures of muscle disruption: in hunted deer measures of red blood cell damage and psychological stress were higher. Hunted stags killed during the rut showed markedly higher levels of measures of blood and muscle cell disruption, psychological stress and fat reserve mobilization than stalked stags killed during this season. Estimates of wounding rates by stalkers showed that 11 per cent of deer required two or more shots to kill, 7 per cent took 2—15 min to die and 2 per cent escaped wounded. Overall, we judged that the welfare costs associated with hunting red deer were higher than those associated with stalking, and reducing the welfare costs associated with hunting was much less feasible than reducing those associated with stalking.

Animal well-being and enrichment continue to gain importance in the maintenance of primates living in captivity. Positive reinforcement training (PRT) and/or playing interaction have been shown to be effective in improving the well-being of several species of primates. This research study evaluated the effects of applying a combination of these two techniques (training/playing therapy) on a group of lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). The effects of this combination on the behaviour of captive primates have been given very little attention to date. The behaviour of a group of seven females was recorded in two different phases at Barcelona Zoo: before (periods 1 and 2) and after (periods 3 and 4) a series of changes were made to the composition of this social group. In each period, two phases were distinguished: i) baseline condition, after the subjects became used to the researcher, focal recordings were made of the group's regular behaviour and, ii) experimental condition, the training and playing sessions (‘gorilla play’) with two specific subjects began one hour before the group went to the outdoor facility. The frequency and duration of the behaviour observed in each of the recording conditions were compared. The results showed positive changes in the gorillas’ behaviour: stereotypies, interactions with the public, aggression between subjects and inactivity were all reduced, while affiliative behaviour and individual and social play-related behaviour increased. Moreover, the benefits of this therapy were observed in trained individuals and the rest of the gorillas in the group, which would seem to indicate that training/playing can be used to create a more relaxed atmosphere, reducing social tension and improving the well-being of all the subjects involved.

Full ‘rehabilitation’ of sick and injured wild animals should include restoration to the wild. Few attempts have been made to discover the fate of released ‘rehabilitated’ animals, a significant omission in terms of animal welfare. They may die, unable to find adequate food or nest sites in unfamiliar places. They may be ostracized or even attacked by wild resident conspecifics.

Eight ‘rehabilitated’ hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) were released into farmland and radio-tracked to monitor their movements and nesting; they were also weighed frequently. Three wild hedgehogs caught on site were studied in parallel.

Only one animal remained close to the release site throughout the eight week study. The rest scattered, perhaps seeking more familiar terrain. One animal died, possibly not having fully recovered from its original disorder. Of the seven others, three survived at least seven weeks, but two then met with accidental deaths (drowning and road kill). Contact was lost with four animals, but circumstances suggested that they were probably still alive at least five weeks after release. There was no evidence of negative interaction with local wild hedgehogs nor any indication of difficulty with foraging, nesting or finding their nests again. Body-weights were generally maintained or increased. It is concluded that rehabilitated adult hedgehogs can probably cope well with release.

This study aimed to identify differences in stress measures in pigs (Sus scrofa) with different roles during a tail-biting outbreak. Quartets (n = 16) of age- and gender-matched fattening pigs including a tail biter (TB; n = 16), a victim (V; n = 16), a control in the same pen (Ctb; n = 10), and one in a pen without tail biting (Cno; n = 14) were chosen by direct behavioural observation. Stress measures used were behaviour (dog-sitting, sniffing of pen-mates and aggression), thyroid hormone concentration, morphology of adrenal and thyroid glands and salivary cortisol concentration sampled at 0700, 1000, 1600 and 1900h. Category (TB, V, Ctb, Cno) effects were investigated using a mixed model with replicate as subject and category as repeated effect. Category had a significant effect on adrenal total (cortex + medulla) and cortical area, salivary cortisol at 1900h, serum triiodothyronine (T3) and the behaviours performing and receiving sniffing. Victims suffered from a triad of chronic stress, pathology and suppressed T3 secretion. Evidence for stress in tail biters, a possible cause of the behaviour, consisted of a slightly flattened day-time cortisol pattern and more performed sniffing than all other categories. Differences in evening cortisol concentration and T3 levels between the categories in the pen with ongoing tail biting emphasise the qualities of the control animal. It supports the view that neutral pigs represent a phenotype that adopts a coping strategy leading to lower stress levels than in tail biters and victims, despite being housed in the same pen.

Gavaging (oral dosing) has previously been shown to have only a short-term effect on behavioural parameters in the laboratory rat. The aim of this study was to determine if the gavaging of laboratory rats influenced their heart rate, blood pressure and body temperature, and if so, whether the duration of this impact correlated with the volume gavaged. The three stress parameters were measured using telemetric transponders placed in the abdomen of eight female Sprague-Dawley (Mol:SPRD) rats. Using a Latin Square cross-over design, the rats were gavaged with three different doses of barium sulphate (4, 10 and 40 ml kg–1); in addition, there was a control of no dose, only insertion of the tube. The heart rate, blood pressure and body temperature of the rats were monitored continuously for 4 h after dosing and again for 1 h, 24 h after dosing. The gavaging of laboratory rats was shown to induce an acute reaction: after 30 min, blood pressure and heart rate were significantly higher than before gavaging, and body temperature was significantly higher 60 min after gavaging — indicators of stress levels comparable to those of other basic experimental procedures. A significant correlation between heart rate and dosage was observed until 10 min after gavaging. This indicates that the dosage gavaged is of only minor importance in causing stress, and only important for the most acute reaction. However, because of the resistance and discomfort observed when administering a 40 ml kg–1 dose, this dose should be administered only with caution.

Stress in humans has been reported to be associated with a decrease in the salivary immunoglobulin A (s-IgA) levels enabling the possible use of s-IgA to assess stress. Prolonged stress, if reliably assessed in a non-invasive manner, may be used to assess animal welfare. This study analysed groups of dogs undergoing physical and temperamental training and sIgA levels were measured by rocket immunoelectrophoresis in prospective samples. Behavioural assessment was carried out and Cortisol levels in saliva were measured by ELISA. A significant negative correlation (P <0.007) between the logarithmic Cortisol concentrations and s-IgA levels in saliva was recorded. The behavioural assessment of the dogs agreed well with the biochemical markers. It is concluded that IgA levels in saliva may be a useful marker of dog well-being and that stress results in decreased s-IgA levels.

This study assessed the health and welfare implications of feeding pigs a dry or liquid diet when housed in either fully-slatted or straw-based accommodation. Between April and October 2002, 1024 (Large White × Landrace) × Large White pigs, housed in pens of 32, were fed ad libitum from 34 kg to slaughter at 104 kg liveweight. Data were collected on a range of welfare parameters. Feeding system affected only respiratory health losses. Lameness and tail-biting tended to be more prevalent health conditions in the fully-slatted system, while in the straw-based system pigs showed significantly more enteric and respiratory disease. There were no significant treatment effects on skin lesions or bursitis of the hock. Liquid fed pigs had poorer hygiene scores than dry fed pigs, especially in straw-based housing. Liquid feeding reduced activity level and investigatory behaviours directed towards other pigs. Pigs with straw spent a large proportion of their time manipulating it. Pigs without straw were less active and spent more time manipulating the pen hardware. In post-slaughter assessments, there were no systems differences in lung lesions or osteochondrosis, but other measures differed between housing or feeding systems; pigs with straw had more severe toe erosions on the foot, while pigs without straw had more severe heel erosions. Gastric lesions were more pronounced with dry feeding and in the fully-slatted system. The results highlight the relative health and welfare advantages and disadvantages of these systems for finishing pigs.

The measurement of salivary cortisol allows non-invasive assessment of welfare in captive animals. We utilised this technique to test the effect of zoo opening on six Asian elephants and two Indian rhinoceros at the Terra Natura Zoological Park, Alicante, Spain, during pre-opening, opening and post-opening periods. Salivary cortisol concentrations were found to be significantly higher during the opening period than during pre- and post-opening periods for both species. This method could prove a useful tool in monitoring the success of decisions taken to improve the welfare of captive animals.

Involuntary culling (IC) is where a cow is disposed of due to injury, poor health or infertility. The main reasons for IC are infertility, mastitis and lameness. These reasons have differing age profiles in when they affect cows, cost variable amounts to treat and have an effect on the value of the cow at market. They also reduce cow welfare in different ways. These factors influence the economically optimum cow replacement decision, which must balance the risks of future loss from the current cow against its future prospects and the net costs of a replacement. So the farmer's economic decision as to when to cull a cow may not occur at the same time as when the cow could, and sometimes should, be culled to maximise her welfare. To explore this dilemma, we developed a Dynamic Programme (DP) model to assess the optimum replacement policies for each of 180 possible cow states (12 parities and 15 milk-yield levels) under a simplified set of alternative husbandry systems and remedial practices. The DP was used to explore the relationships between financial outcomes, investment in improving welfare, lifespan and IC in dairy systems. There is a trade-off between dairy cattle lifespan and risk of suffering over which farmers have some control by the replacement and investment decisions they make. Our results show that improving cow welfare by reducing mastitis, lameness or infertility over the long term increases the mean longevity of the herd and also reduces the potential of long-term suffering resulting from chronic conditions. Additionally, it has the effect of increasing replacement opportunities and the annuities for each cow (£ per cow per year) mainly by increasing milk yield and reducing costly on-farm culls, creating a win-win situation for both farmer and cow.

Flystrike (cutaneous myiasis) in sheep has the potential to have a major impact on the welfare of significant numbers of sheep worldwide, but particularly in Australia. The main control method used in Australia, the mulesing operation to remove folds of skin from the hindquarters of the sheep, is effective in controlling the disease, but will be terminated from 2010 as a result of concerns that the operation itself has too great a negative impact on sheep welfare. Alternative treatment methods are considered, and it is proposed that they need to be appraised for each farm separately, based on the conditions prevailing and the potential to apply the different treatments. Sheep are predisposed to flystrike if their fleece is wet or contaminated with faeces or urine. Monitoring and awareness of the weather conditions will enable farmers to strategically treat their sheep with insecticides, or to observe them and treat affected animals more regularly. Frequent removal of wool by crutching, dagging and shearing will aid wool desiccation after rainfall and decrease the likelihood of fleece contamination with excreta. Some control of diarrhoea can be achieved by good grazing management and treatment of diseases that predispose sheep to the disorder. Reducing fly populations can be achieved by the use of traps, and parasitoid wasps also offer some promise. Alternative methods of removing wool and wrinkles from the hindquarters of sheep, including the topical application of quarternary ammonium compounds, phenols, caustic soda or plastic clips, have yet to be proven to be effective, without severely impacting on the welfare of the animal as well as compromising operator safety. In the long term, the breeding of sheep without wrinkles or wool on their hindquarters offers the most likely method of control, although a small proportion of sheep are affected on other parts of their body.

Atlantic bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops trucatus) are found in zoos and aquaria throughout the world. As the number of facilities with dolphin shows and interaction programmes increases, it becomes more important to understand the effects of such programmes on dolphin behaviour. The present study examined the short-term effects of dolphin shows and interaction programmes on the behaviour of Atlantic bottlenose dolphins at six facilities. Rates of affiliative behaviour, aggressive behaviour, repetitive behaviour and percentage of time spent socialising were found to be unrelated to dolphin shows or interaction programmes. Additionally, dolphins exhibited higher rates of behavioural diversity, diversity of swimming style, and play behaviour following shows and interaction programmes. These results suggest that dolphin shows and interaction programmes can be an important part of an enrichment programme for dolphins in zoological institutions. However, individual differences should be considered when animals participate in these types of programmes.

Male African cichlids (Oreochromis mossambicus) establish territories on the substrate upon which spawning pits are dug, thus attracting females. The substrate, therefore, plays a very significant role in its lifecycle. The effects of substrate access on behaviour and physiology in captivity were assessed. Mixed-sex, all-male and all-female groups were observed for five days, with and without substrate. Social patterns, behaviour directed towards the substrate, locomotor activity and spatial behaviour were recorded, and haematocrit, plasma cortisol and glucose levels were measured. Substrate inclusion saw a significant increase in behavioural diversity, sexual behaviour of dominant males in mixed groups, pit digging and territoriality whereas a lack of substrate was characterised by increased chafing and inactivity. Vacuum-pit digging was also observed. Frequency of aggression did not differ significantly and female behaviour was not affected by the presence of substrate. For both sexes, no differences in cortisol and glucose levels were found between the two treatments, but haematocrit increased with substrate. The key role played by substrate in territorial males is consistent with the behavioural and physiological data reported. In the absence of substrate, decreased territorial behaviour is contrasted with similar levels of aggression, cortisol and glucose; all of which are suggestive of a stress-related context. Moreover, the exhibition of vacuum activities is a signal that behavioural needs are not being met and may be some form of coping mechanism. These findings, taken in conjunction with the variations in behavioural diversity and inactivity, suggest that the welfare of male cichlids may be adversely affected by the absence of substrate.

Recent developments related to quantitative analysis of the electroencephalogram (EEG) have allowed the experience of pain to be assessed more directly than has hitherto been possible. Variables derived from the EEG of animals anaesthetised using our minimal anaesthesia model respond to noxious stimulation in a manner similar to those from conscious animals. This methodology has been used in a variety of applications including the evaluation of analgesic options for painful husbandry procedures and investigation of developmental aspects of the perception of pain. We have now applied the minimal anaesthesia model to the question of the slaughter of calves by ventral-neck incision. A series of studies evaluated the magnitude of EEG response to the noxious stimulus of ventral-neck incision and the physiological mechanisms that underlie this response. We also investigated the EEG effects of stunning by non-penetrating captive bolt and the ability of such stunning to ameliorate the response to ventral-neck incision. The results demonstrate clearly, for the first time, that the act of slaughter by ventral-neck incision is associated with noxious stimulation that would be expected to be painful in the period between the incision and subsequent loss of consciousness. These data provide further support for the value of stunning in preventing pain and distress in animals subjected to this procedure. We discuss the development of the minimal anaesthesia model and its adaptation for use in the investigation of slaughter by ventral-neck incision as well as considering the contributions of these studies to the ongoing development of international policy concerning the slaughter of animals.

Survival and mortality of extensive hill ewes are important commercial factors and valuable indicators of welfare, but difficult to study. Body condition scoring is a tried-and-tested management and monitoring tool which has been defined as a good predictor of fitness in ewes and is easily measured under hill farm conditions. This paper presents the results of a study on ewe survival rates in hill conditions in Scotland. Ewe performance and survival rates were measured in two contrasting hill flocks over a five-year period. Statistical analysis showed that mid-pregnancy body condition score was the most reliable indicator of subsequent ewe survival, followed closely by age of the ewe and environmental and management conditions. This study confirms that there are considerable welfare issues related to hill flocks and that improved winter nutritional management is a key component to good welfare and productivity. It also reinforces the view that body condition score is a good quantitative predictor of animal welfare and that poor mid-winter score indicates high risk of mortality, both at the flock and individual ewe level.

Severe feather pecking, a potentially stereotypic behaviour in chickens (Gallus gallus), can be reduced by providing enrichment. However, there is little comparative information available on the effectiveness of different types of enrichment. Providing forages to birds is likely to decrease feather-pecking behaviour the most, as it is generally thought that feather pecking stems from re-directed foraging motivation. Yet, other types of enrichment, such as dustbaths and novel objects, have also been shown to reduce feather pecking. In order to develop a practical and effective enrichment, these different possibilities must be examined. Using a Latin Square Design, 14-week old birds were given each of four treatments: i) forages; ii) novel objects; iii) dustbaths; or iv) no enrichment. The amount of feather-pecking behaviour and the number of pecks to the enrichments were recorded. Results showed feather pecking to be highest when no enrichment was present and lowest when the forages were present, with the other two enrichments intermediate. This was despite the fact that the numbers of pecks birds gave to the forages and dustbaths were not significantly different, suggesting that they were similarly used. Thus, we suggest here that forage enrichments are most effective at alleviating feather pecking at least in the short term and attempts should be made to develop poultry housing that allows for natural foraging behaviour. Following this, providing any kind of enrichment will increase bird welfare and is therefore still beneficial.

Choice tests are commonly used to measure animals’ preferences, and the results of such tests are used to make recommendations regarding animal husbandry. An implicit assumption underlying the majority of choice tests is that the preferences obtained are independent of the set of options available in the test. This follows from two assumptions about the mechanisms of choice: first, that animals use absolute evaluation mechanisms to assign value to options, and second, that the probability of choosing an option is proportional to the ratio between the value of that option and the sum of the values of the other options available. However, if either of these assumptions is incorrect then preferences can differ depending on the composition of the choice set. In support of this concern, evidence from foraging animals shows that preferences can change when a third, less preferred option is added to a binary choice. These findings have implications for the design and interpretation of choice tests.

The effect that breed standards and selective breeding practices have on the welfare of pedigree dogs has recently come under scrutiny from both the general public and scientific community. Recent research has suggested that breeding for particular aesthetic traits, such as tightly curled tails, highly domed skulls and short muzzles predisposes dogs with these traits to certain inherited defects, such as spina bifida, syringomyelia and brachycephalic airway obstruction syndrome, respectively. Further to this, there is a very large number of inherited diseases that are not related to breed standards, which are thought to be prevalent, partly as a consequence of inbreeding and restricted breeding pools. Inherited diseases, whether linked to conformation or not, have varying impact on the individuals affected by them, and affect varying proportions of the pedigree dog population. Some diseases affect few breeds but are highly prevalent in predisposed breeds. Other diseases affect many breeds, but have low prevalence within each breed. In this paper, we discuss the use of risk analysis and severity diagrams as means of mapping the overall problem of inherited disorders in pedigree dogs and, more specifically, the welfare impact of specific diseases in particular breeds.