We analyzed two sets of farm policy options, representing different ideological approaches to government involvement in agriculture, to estimate their effects on the relative economic attractiveness of “sustainable” and “conventional” farming systems. The mandatory supply control approach, through strict acreage limitations on program crops, represents a strong government role in commodity supply management. The Normal Crop Acreage approach, on the other hand, allows farmers greater flexibility in deciding what crops to grow. We used economic models of five pairs of case study farms in different agroclimatic areas of South Dakota, covering corn-soybean, spring wheat, and winter wheat growing regions. Mandatory restrictions on the planted acreage of “program” crops, including soybeans, were found to favor the conventional systems, because they induced high prices for crops that predominate in conventional systems, especially com, soybeans, and wheat. In principle, however, mandatory acreage controls could require compliance with certain sustainable agriculture practices. Normal Crop Acreage (NCA) proposals can encourage greater use of sustainable farming systems. Where conventional corn and soybean production is relatively profitable, as in parts of eastern South Dakota, NCA options by themselves appear insufficient to induce changeovers to sustainable cropping systems. In wheat growing areas of northern and western South Dakota, however, where the two systems oflen are about equally profitable, NCA policies could promote sustainable systems, particularly if deficiency payments are not reduced for harvesting legumes and other non-program crops on NCA base. To have this positive effect, NCA policies must be introduced gradually and structured to limit adverse effects on the markets for legumes and other non-program crops that are important in sustainable rotations.

The United States Department of Agriculture's Report and Recommendations on Organic Farming (1980) is destined to be a milestone in the evolution of agriculture's scientific paradigm. Such recognition, however, will come several years in the future and will require a key scientific breakthrough for full assessment of the “new world” its authors brought forward to the mainstream scientific community.

The Cooperative Extension Services in many states have concentrated on educational publications and programs which describe the complexities of the hydrologic cycle and where pollutants can enter the system. Recognizing that farming is a prime source of nonpoint source pollution in some areas, extension programs have focused on alternative agricultural practices which can reduce that pollution. Both national and state extension services have published recommendations on increasing public awareness, developed linkages with research, and provided leadership in education about pollution problems and how to solve them. The current national task forces on extension priorities include “water quality” as one of eight key areas for future extension emphasis. Alternative farming practices which can help reduce the pollution levels from agriculture include careful soil sampling, interpretation of analyses, setting yield goals, and matching nutrient applications to crop needs. Modified methods of nutrient application can also help. Reduced tillage, crop rotations, increased use of legumes, and keeping cover on the land through a greater part of the year can all help. Reduced applications of pesticides and use of alternative pest control measures have potential to improve ground water quality. There are economic as well as environmental reasons to reduce chemical and fertilizer applications in agriculture. This is a critical time for producers and researchers to examine alternative practices which can help improve ground water quality for future generations.

Soil-testing is an effective guide for achieving and maintaining an optimum supply of available plant nutrients, but there is little information on the multi-year soil-test changes for farms using long-term crop rotations, ridge-tillage and nutrients supplied by a mixture of organic amendments. Our objectives were to characterize yearly changes in surface soil-test parameters, including the stratification of P and K; compare soil-test methods (Mehlich III versus Bray P1 and 1 M NH4OAc exchangeable K); and evaluate soil-test interpretation strategies [sufficiency level versus basic cation saturation ratio (BCSR)] within a fanner-managed field. The study was conducted on the Clarion–Nicollet–Webster Soil Association near Boone, 1A, in a field that had not been moldboard plowed for 29 years. Soil samples were collected from the 0–5, 5–10, 10–15, and 15–20 cm depth increments before plowing and every autumn thereafter throughout the 5-year rotation. Samples were analyzed for pH, Bray extractable P, exchangeable K, total C and N, NH4− and NO3−N concentrations, and Mehlich III extractable P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, Mn and Zn. Stratification of P and K was evident within 2 years after moldboard plowing. This was not considered a production problem, because, based on sufficiency-level soil-test interpretations, the animal manure/municipal sludge applications had increased soil P and K concentrations to levels where no crop response to additional fertilizer would be expected. Using Mehlich III extradant with simultaneous inductively coupled plasma–atomic emission spectrometer (ICP–AES) analysis resulted in soil-test interpretations that were the same as with Bray P1 and 1 M ammonium acetate (NH4OAc) extracting solutions. The Mehlich III solution did extract more Ca than 1 M NH4OAc, causing K saturation percentages to be very low when the data were interpreted using a BCSR approach. We conclude that stratification is not a production issue at this site; that either soil-test methodology would be acceptable for P and K extraction; and that additional studies evaluating the BCSR soil-test interpretation philosophy are warranted.

Reforestation of frequently flooded, marginally productive agricultural lands may provide environmental benefits. However, for reforestation to occur private landowners must earn enough revenues from forestlands to offset both the costs of reforesting as well as any forgone agricultural income. Among the possible revenue sources is the sale of carbon sequestration credits earned from reforestation. We simulate the financial feasibility of reforestation and the contribution of carbon sequestration credit sales to the net income possible from reforestation in a case study area of frequently flooded soybean fields in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain (the Delta). Under current market conditions, reforestation appears to be financially feasible on only the most marginally productive agricultural lands. Markets for carbon credits may contribute to positive financial returns of reforestation, but other policies and market opportunities will be necessary for a positive return to be realized.

Six species of ophids (Homoptera: Aphididae) are the most economically significant insect pests of wheat in Washington. Management technologies under development or in use in Washington emphasize biorational approaches, including development and use of resistance germplasm, manipulation of pest populations through cropping systems, and development of biological controls. We review wheat yield losses caused by aphids, their biological control, and the effects of conservation tillage and systemic seed treatment.

This study evaluated the profitability of several cropping systems during a 10-year period of an experiment comparing rotations and levels of purchased inputs. Continuous corn or sorghum, corn/wheat-soybean (2-year), and corn/wheat-soybean/corn/clover hay (4-year) were managed with recommended fertilizer and pesticide rates and no-till planting (C) or with N from legumes, conventional tillage, and cultivation for weed control (L). Medium input management (M: medium rate of N and banded herbicides) was included during years 5 through 10. Generally, corn was the least profitable crop, regardless of input level or type of rotation. Rotating crops improved profit more than did adding inputs to continuous corn. With L, average annual profit was: continuous corn, -$64/ha; 2-year rotation, $135/ha; and 4-year rotation, $158/ha. With C, the 2-year rotation increased profit to $165/ha from -$119/ha with continuous corn. The increased profit with rotations was due to greater profits from wheat, soybean, and hay offsetting low or negative profit from corn. Sorghum (grown only in monoculture) was more profitable with L ($34/ha) than with C (-$20/ha). During the 6 years when all input levels were compared, the order of average profit was M>L>C with continuous corn. Generally, profit was not increased by M compared with L in the 2-and 4-year rotations. With L, the cost of weed control was 20% of that for C with corn and 44% with soybean. Cost of N from fertilizer was $0.66/kg, but cost of N from crimson clover (seed and planting costs) averaged $0.92/kg when clover was drilled, $1.27/kg when aerially seeded, and $0.16/kg when naturally reseeded.

Editor's note: First-hand accounts of how conventional farmers are attempting to “make the switch” from chemical-intensive to low chemical farming help us understand the problems involved in this transition process. At the IAA symposium, Indiana farmer Jess (Josh) C. Andrew III presented a highly informative talk on these critical issues and questions from the perspective of the conventional farmer. The following is based upon his formal presentation and additional written materials which he submitted.

The traditional farming system (TFS) in the Ghouta has been an integral pan of the social life and has contributed to the food supply of Damascus for millennia. Very little is known about this traditional and sustainable system, considered by many as a hindrance to development. This study is an attempt to analyze the economic perfonnance of this system. The objective is to evaluate the economic performance of the TFS and its impact on system viability. Three farms, representing the three different agricultural strategies in this area, were selected for data-collection. Participant observation was used to derive estimates of labor, costs and revenues, which are not recorded by farmers. These three farms formed a base for continuous contact with other farmers in the Ghouta. The average values, after cross-checking with these estimates and other farmers, were used in the economic analysis at three levels: production, family and market level. The production system of the Ghouta is adaptable to economic forces of a major city as the high level of market orientation of the TFS stimulates diversity of farms. It is concluded that the diversified farms managed by farmers in this area provide a satisfactory income, which is in harmony both with the social values and with preserving the system, the overall objective of the farmers.

Soilborne plant pathogens cause major economic losses in agricultural crops, and the present methods for control of diseases brought about by these pathogens are inadequate. Alternatives are also needed to substitute for the use of chemical fungicides. Many of these are known to induce tumors in experimental animals and are thus regarded by some investigators as potential human carcinogens when present as residues in food and water. In addition, such alternative control measures are needed because of the potential threat of development of resistance to fungicides, especially systemic fungicides, by fungal plant pathogens, and because of nontarget side effects on other plant pathogens and on beneficial microorganisms. Alternative disease control is sometimes possible through development of crop plants resistant to disease. Unfortunately, however, resistance is lacking or not available for many diseases caused by soilborne plant pathogens. Another biological means of controlling disease which is presently gaining much attention is biological control. Several systems of biological control are presently being explored and may be developed in a few years into reliable alternatives to conventional chemical control methods. The use of the mycoparasite Sporidesmium sclerotivorum, for example, against several diseases caused by Sclerotinia species is promising. Talaromyces flavus may in the future be exploited for use against several wilt diseases caused by Verticillium dahliae. Finally, practical control of several diseases caused by Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia solani, and Sclerotium rolfsii may eventually become possible through the use of Trichoderma spp. and Gliocladium virens. Development of these biological control systems will require much additional research directed toward a better understanding of the basic biology and mechanisms of action of beneficial fungi against plant pathogens. In addition, extensive cooperation will be required among research scientists, governmental agencies responsible for regulating the use of pestcontrol systems, and most importantly, private industry to develop biological control agents for the market and to coordinate acceptance and use by producers and acceptance by consumers.

The nature of integrated pest management (IPM) is discussed in relation to the history and current state of science, agriculture and pest management. The potential for future development and adoption of IPM is evaluated in relation to three alternate future models. It is concluded that IPM will have an important role to play in relation to management of the environment and our future quality of life.

Resources available for dryland farming in Jordan are limited since 91% of the country has an arid climate. Moreover, the available resources are subject to a wide range of natural and human constraints. The farming systems consist of two main types: annual crops such as wheat and barley, and fruit trees such as olives, grapes, and stone fruits. Socioeconomic factors coupled with a fluctuating rainfall pattern cause some shifting in land use and variation in land under cultivation. Alternative land use strategies and preservation and more efficient use of resources are the means to achieve higher production. Substantial addition of land suitable for cultivation is unlikely since it would require additional water resources, which are diminishing in Jordan. Environmental degradation such as desertification is a major concern to land use planners. Several issues must be addressed if agricultural productivity is to be sustained: preservation of resources; overcoming various pressures imposed on agricultural lands; adoption of new practical and economical practices; introduction of modern technologies such as water harvesting, supplemental irrigation, use of treated waste water, and proper soil conservation measures; and adaptive research.

Double-cropping provides a method of diversifying the rotation, maximizing production, and increasing the profit potential of a cropping system. We assessed agronomic and economic performance of five alternative crops in comparison to the no-till wheat-soybean double-cropping system prevalent in the southern Corn Belt. Canola has shown potential as a profitable winter crop, but its effects on the subsequent crop in a no-till double-crop system required further study. Amaranth, buckwheat, sunflower, and pearl millet were planted after the harvest of canola or wheat, or after fallow. Alternative double-crop grain yield, production costs, and net returns were compared with those of double-crop soybean.

Wheat yielded more than canola. Sunflower grain yields did not differ significantly after winter-crop treatments at any site. Yields of amaranth, buckwheat, soybean, and pearl millet differed after winter crops at some sites. At three study yield levels, net returns were positive and greatest for double-crop wheat-amaranth, canola-amaranth, wheat-sunflower, and canola-sunflower systems. All double-crop systems except canolapearl millet had positive net returns at median study yield levels. Low or negative net returns resulted from the combination of low yield and low price for some double crops. Canola was shown to be an economically feasible alternative to wheat in a doublecropping system for central and southern Missouri. Buckwheat and sunflower were shown to be agronomically and economically competitive alternatives to soybean following either canola or winter wheat, with buckwheat most valuable in late-season planting conditions.

About 120 km west of Stockholm, beside a beautiful lake in a landscape of farmland interspersed with evergreen forests, lies perhaps the best known and most frequently visited organic farm in Sweden. As managed by Kalle and Inger Källander since 1982, Sörtorp has become an impressive example of how, with careful planning and management, a farm's available resources can be fashioned into a stable, productive system whose diverse components work together as an organic whole. This cardinal principle of organic farming is often voiced in the abstract, but to achieve it in practice is another matter. It requires a sustained willingness and ability to learn, to devise ingenious uses for the farm's land and facilities, and to try different approaches to solve existing problems and adapt to changing conditions. All this is abundantly evident at Sortorp.