In the coming century, the impact of air travel on the environment will become an increasingly powerful influence on aircraft design. Unless the impact per passenger kilometre can be reduced substantially relative to today’s levels, environmental factors will increasingly limit the expansion of air travel and the social benefit that it brings. This essay considers the three main impacts, noise, air pollution around airports and influence on climate change. Of the three, impact on climate change is taken to have the greatest long-term importance and is discussed at the greatest length. It is argued that, of the three main contributors to climate change from aircraft – CO2 emissions, NOX emissions and the creation of persistent contrails – it is the last two which are the most promising targets. Ways of reducing the impacts of these two are discussed and it is noted that, in each case, the best environmental result is likely to entail some increase in CO2 emissions. It follows that regulatory or economic measures to reduce impact on climate should be framed so as to do just that. Measures framed purely in terms of CO2 emissions are likely to be counter-productive. Nevertheless, the design of aircraft to reduce fuel burn and hence CO2 emission remains a key long-term objective; the essay considers the potential offered by new technology and new design concepts in this arena.

During the last century, general aviation (GA), including rotorcraft, has grown from humble beginnings into a mature safe transportation system. The high levels of safety achieved in GA were made possible through the combined efforts of all members of the GA community: manufacturers, owners, operators, maintainers, academia, and regulators.

The 1990s saw a lifeless GA industry begin another growth cycle. As we move into the 21st century it is important that the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Small Airplane Directorate (SAD) participate with manufacturers and the GA community to raise the level of safety. This importance goes beyond preventing accidents, which is the SAD's primary goal. Our role in the health of GA is to work with manufacturers and GA organisations to determine the most effective (value verses cost) ways to reduce accidents in both the existing fleet and new aeroplane. Safety is an important component to the overall value of an aeroplane and has become an important selling point for new aeroplane designs. It is vital that the SAD, working with industry and organisations, improve the small aeroplane safety record if the GA market is to grow beyond the enthusiast market.

The Aircraft Accident Statistics and Knowledge (AASK) database is a repository of survivor accounts from aviation accidents. Its main purpose is to store observational and anecdotal data from the actual interviews of the occupants involved in aircraft accidents. The database has wide application to aviation safety analysis, being a source of factual data regarding the evacuation process. It is also key to the development of aircraft evacuation models such as airEXODUS, where insight into how people actually behave during evacuation from survivable aircraft crashes is required. This paper describes recent developments with the database leading to the development of AASK v3.0. These include significantly increasing the number of passenger accounts in the database, the introduction of cabin crew accounts, the introduction of fatality information, improved functionality through the seat plan viewer utility and improved ease of access to the database via the internet. In addition, the paper demonstrates the use of the database by investigating a number of important issues associated with aircraft evacuation. These include issues associated with social bonding and evacuation, the relationship between the number of crew and evacuation efficiency, frequency of exit/slide failures in accidents and exploring possible relationships between seating location and chances of survival. Finally, the passenger behavioural trends described in analysis undertaken with the earlier database are confirmed with the wider data set.

A computational study has been performed to investigate the effectiveness of film cooling in hypersonic laminar flows. Both the primary and the coolant flow are air. First, three different primary flow conditions are used for validation. A uniform boundary condition at the slot exit is found to give unrealistic predictions of the heat transfer rate, whilst a boundary condition involving extended coolant inlet gives improvement. Then five coolant injection rates and three slot heights are examined. It is confirmed that increasing the coolant injection rate can increase the film cooling effectiveness for laminar cases. But slot height does not play an important role under the flow conditions in this study. The computational results are compared with the experimental results and good agreement is achieved.

A numerical study of drag reduction by mini-belts in a smooth wall turbulent boundary layer is carried using a second-moment closure turbulence model. The main objective of this exploratory work is to investigate the possibility of using mini-belts, driven by frictional drag only, to reduce the drag of a smooth wall. The results clearly show that such technique can be an effective and cheap means for achieving drag reduction. Furthermore, it is observed that, in contrast to riblets, the use of mini-belts does not suffer from geometrical or size constraints in the context of drag reduction. Also mini-belts will always reduce the skin friction regardless of the flow regime (laminar, transitional and turbulent). These advantages may quite well balance the major difficulty related to their mounting in practical situations

Non-linear behaviour is usually undesirable for the operation of any system and it needs to be minimised in flight control systems in order to provide the pilot with a predictable and well-behaved aircraft. The non-linear response characteristics exhibited by all aircraft and their flight control systems can be characterised by using nonlinear functions to simulate and analyse their behaviour. This paper explores the types of physical non-linearities that exist in aircraft flight control systems and provides some examples. It describes how the non-linear stability might be analysed and addresses the subject of actuation systems modelling. The final section provides recommendations for minimising non-linear behaviour and gives some general guidelines on how to deal with non-linear characteristics.

The use of large numbers of unmanned air vehicles in a given air space presents a challenge for conventional air traffic control methods. Flocking (or schooling, swarming or herding) in nature arises when mobile organisms find benefit in living at high densities. The present paper applies rules of flocking (cohesion, alignment, separation, and migration) to the problem of managing the flight of a number of autonomous unmanned air vehicles. A six-degree of freedom aerodynamic model of an existing UAV is used to simulate the flocking flight vehicles. It is found that application of the cohesion and alignment rules is sufficient to generate true flocking behaviour in that the flight vehicle density is increased and the flock members converge on a common heading. Increasing rule strength reduces the time taken to achieve flocking behaviour. However increasing rule strength too far leads to oscillatory or unstable flight paths. It is found that flock behaviour can be adequately described using the time histories of two statistical parameters: the mean radius between flock members and the standard deviation of the flock members’ heading angles.

This paper describes the research into the flight dynamics modelling and flight control of a flapping wing micro aerial vehicle (MAV). The equations of motion based on a multi-body representation of the vehicle and the flapping wings were derived and form the basis for the simulation program, which was developed using MATLAB and SIMULINK. The aerodynamic forces were obtained through experimental methods and form the basis for the aerodynamic model.

The hovering and low speed flight of the MAV was investigated using a SIMULINK simulation model. Various flight control concepts, inspired by observation of insect and bird flight, were investigated in some detail. The concepts include the control of flap frequency, flap and pitch phasing (wing beat kinematics) and shift in centre of gravity position. The paper concludes with a comparison of the control concepts and their feasibility for a practical vehicle application.

This paper presents an examination of dynamic stall onset on both a rectangular wing and a nominally two-dimensional aerofoil with the same cross-section. The intention is to determine the extent to which the onset of dynamic stall is changed in the three-dimensional case. To do this, three different criteria are applied to measured pressure data to identify both the onset of the stalling process and the formation of the dynamic stall vortex. It is shown that examination of the vorticity flux in the vicinity of the leading edge provides a means of determining vortex formation in the absence of strong three-dimensional effects. It is also shown that this technique is not applicable on outboard sections of the rectangular wing where the phasing of dynamic stall onset with respect to the leading edge response is altered by the three-dimensionality of the flow. It is concluded that the application of two-dimensional stall onset criteria is inappropriate under such conditions.

Work has been carried out by Kutschera on how to assess, at the conceptual design stage, the performance of fighter aircraft. As part of this work, Kutschera reviewed a number of existing and proposed metrics for assessing aircraft performance. Reference 4 also describes how the performance of an aircraft can be quantified by three types of metric. The first type are steady state or point performance metrics, such as turn rate plots and energy manoeuvrability diagrams. The second type are manoeuvrability metrics and the last are agility metrics.

A new semi-empirical one-dimensional approach for the prediction of aeroengine combustor emissions is presented. The model features a high level of versatility, resulting in a remarkable correlation quality of measurement data of different combustors. This combustion model was modified to reflect the design characteristics of staged combustors. After implementation in an optimisation procedure it was used for staged combustor design studies. For a typical aeroengine application an optimised combustor design was derived with respect to a predefined criteria. Potential exchange rates of combustion efficiency versus NOx emissions by rematching the fuel split for different operating conditions at extreme points of the environmental envelope (ISA/hot day/cold day) of a modern commercial aircraft were investigated. Conclusions regarding the suitable operation of the combustor were drawn. Finally the effect of changed design constrains on the optimisation result was investigated.

A series of active flow control experiments were recently conducted at high Reynolds numbers on a wall mounted ‘Hump’. The model simulates the upper surface of a 20% thick Glauert-Goldschmied type airfoil at zero incidence. The flow over the model is turbulent since the tunnel sidewall boundary-layer flows over it, eliminating laminar-turbulent transition from the problem. The main motivation for the experiments was to generate a comprehensive data base for validation of unsteady numerical simulation as a first step in the development of a design tool, without which it would not be possible to effectively utilise the great potential of unsteady flow control. This paper focuses on the dynamics of several key features of the baseline as well as the controlled two- and three-dimensional flows.

It was found that the two-dimensional separated flow contains unsteady waves centered on a reduced frequency (Strouhal number based on the length of the separated region and free-stream velocity) of 0·8, while in the three-dimensional separated flow, reduced frequencies of 0·3 and 1·0 are active. Several scenarios of resonant wave interaction take place over the separated shear-layer and in the pressure recovery regions. The unstable reduced frequency bands for periodic excitation are centered on 1·5 and 5, but these reduced frequencies are based on the length of the baseline bubble that shortens due to the excitation. The conventional swept wing-scaling works well for the coherent wave features. Reproduction of these dynamic effects by a numerical simulation would provide benchmark validation.

This paper outlines an initial investigation for determining nonlinear aerodynamics for unsteady transonic flows through the use of curve fitting unsteady computational fluid dynamics (CFD) data. The full aerodynamics including linear and non-linear aerodynamics can be identified as a polynomial function. Through the curve fitting method, the important non-linear terms can be identified and the smaller terms can be neglected. Having modelled the non-linear aerodynamics and included into the aeroelastic model, the characteristics and stability of non-linear aeroelastic system can then be investigated using normal form theory. The methodology is demonstrated upon a simple two-degrees-of-freedom aeroelastic wing model with structural and aerodynamics nonlinearity. A good agreement is obtained for all cases studied between analytical and simulation results.

In this work a combined analysis of the out-of-plane mechanical and the electromagnetic properties of auxetic re-entrant honeycombs is performed. Experimental and numerical simulations are carried out to evaluate the correlation between the anisotropicity of the transverse mechanical properties (shear and compressive modulus) and the permittivity tensor of auxetic honeycombs. The results are evaluated to assess the feasibility of this kind of cellular solid for electromagnetic absorption and window applications with high structural integrity performance.

The effect of small perturbations on steady nonlinear transonic small disturbance flowfields, in the context of two-dimensional flows governed by the general-frequency transonic small disturbance equation with nonreflecting far-field boundary conditions, is investigated. This paper presents a time-linearised time-domain solution method that includes effects due to the shock-generated entropy and vorticity and shock wave motions. The solution procedure correctly accounts for the small-amplitude shock wave motion due to small unsteady changes in the aerofoil boundary conditions, and correctly models a flowfield with embedded strong shock waves. Steady and first harmonic pressure distributions for the NACA 0003 aerofoil with a harmonically oscillating flap, and NACA 0012 aerofoil undergoing a sinusoidal pitching oscillation, are predicted and compared with the Euler results.