The most general motion of a rigid body can be described by the combination of the translational motion of its center of mass and the rotational motion of all points of the body about an axis through the center of mass. In this chapter, we apply kinematics, dynamics, and conservation laws to investigate rolling motion, which is a special case of this most general motion. This chapter represents the culmination of all the topics we cover in the first six chapters of this book.

In this chapter, we begin by examining the work due to a torque. We then define the concept of the rotational kinetic energy for a point mass, systems of discrete masses, and continuous rigid bodies. We develop the angular work-kinetic energy theorem and use it to study the conservation of energy and the conservation of mechanical energy in systems involving rotational motion. To develop these theorems, we draw from our understanding of the analogous theorems in linear motion.

We begin our study of rotational motion with the definitions and detailed examination of the fundamental quantities which we will use throughout this book. We then proceed with a description of kinematics in rotational motion by drawing analogies from our knowledge of one-dimensional kinematics in linear motion.

The journey through rotational motion is not quite done. In fact, we are just beginning. This chapter introduces a few topics which would be covered in an intermediate-level mechanics course. The topics include more advanced physical phenomena, such as gyroscopic precession, and the mathematical formalism of parameterizing rotations using matrices.

The concept of mass in linear motion was quite simple. However, the rotational analog, the moment of inertia, is comparatively complicated. In this chapter, we present a thorough introduction to the moment of inertia, and we develop the tools needed to compute this quantity for point masses, systems of discrete masses, and continuous rigid bodies about different axes of rotation. The chapter ends with some useful theorems that allow us to extend the application of these fundamental tools.

Exact solutions for infinite Ising systems are rare, specific in terms of the interactions allowed, and limited to one and two dimensions. To study a wider range of models we must resort to various approximation techniques. One of the simplest and most comprehensive of these is the mean-field approximation, the subject of this chapter. Some versions of this approximation rely on a self-consistent requirement, and in this respect the mean-field method for the Ising model is similar to a number of other self-consistent approximation methods in physics, including the Hartree–Fock approximation for atomic and molecular orbitals, the BCS theory of superconductivity, and the relaxation method for determining electric potentials. We will also introduce a somewhat different mean-field approach, the Landau–Ginzburg approximation, which is based on a series expansion of the free energy. One of the drawbacks of all of the mean-field theories, however, is that they predict the same mean-field critical exponents, which, unfortunately, are at odds with the results of exact solutions and experiments.

A useful way to solve a complex problem – whether in physics, mathematics, or life in general – is to break it down into smaller pieces that can be handled more easily. This is especially true of the Ising model. In this chapter, we investigate various partial-summation techniques in which a subset of Ising spins is summed over to produce new, effective couplings among the remaining spins. These methods are useful in their own right and are even more important when used as a part of position-space renormalization-group techniques.

In the chapters so far, we have studied a number of exact methods of calculation for Ising models. These studies culminated in the exact solution for an infinite one-dimensional Ising model, as well as the corresponding solution on a 2 × ∞ lattice. Neither of these systems shows a phase transition, however. In this chapter, we start with Onsager’s exact solution for the two-dimensional lattice, which quite famously does have a phase transition. Next, we explore exact series expansions from low and high temperature, and show how these results can be combined, via the concept of duality, to give the exact location of the phase transition in two dimensions.

In Chapter 3 we explored transformations where a finite group of Ising spins is summed to produce effective interactions among the remaining spins. In all of these cases a finite sum of Boltzmann factors is sufficient to solve the problem. We turn now to infinite systems, where a straightforward, brute-force summation is not possible. Instead, we develop a number of new techniques that allow us to evaluate an infinite summation in full detail.

Kenneth Wilson introduced the renormalization-group (RG) approach in 1971. This approach gave new life to the study of the Ising model. The implications of this breakthrough were immediately recognized by researchers in the field, and Wilson and the RG technique were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics soon thereafter. One of the distinguishing features of RG methods is that they explicitly include the effects of fluctuations. In addition, the RG approach gives a natural understanding of the universality that is seen in critical phenomena in general, and in critical exponents in particular. In many respects, the RG approach gives a deeper understanding not only of the Ising model itself, but of all aspects of critical phenomena. The original version of the renormalization-group method was implemented in momentum space – which is a bit like studying a system with Fourier transforms. It is beyond the scope of this presentation. Following that, various investigators extended the approach to position space, which is more intuitive in many ways and is certainly much easier to visualize. We present the basics of position-space renormalization group methods in this chapter. We will also explain the origin of the terms “renormalization” and “group” in the RG part of the name.