It is to be hoped that personal matters will not divert attention from the very interesting scientific questions involved. The liquefaction of air at one operation by Linde and Hampson is indeed a great feat, and a triumph for the principle of regeneration. But it must not be overlooked that to allow the air to expand without doing work, or rather to allow the work of expansion to appear as heat at the very place where the utmost cooling is desired, is very bad thermodynamics. The work of expansion should not be dissipated within, but be conducted to the exterior.

I understand that attempts to expand the air under a piston in a cylinder have led to practical difficulties connected with the low temperature. But surely a turbine of some sort might be made to work. This would occupy little space, and even if of low efficiency, would still allow a considerable fraction of the work of expansion to be conveyed away. The worst turbine would be better than none, and would probably allow the pressures to be reduced. It should be understood that the object is not so much to save the work, as to obviate the very prejudicial heating arising from its dissipation in the coldest part of the apparatus. It seems to me that the future may bring great developments in this direction, and that it may thus be possible to liquefy even hydrogen at one operation.

Introduction

The behaviour of air and other gases at low densities is a subject which presents peculiar difficulties to the experimenter, and highly discrepant results have been arrived at as to the relations between density and pressure. While Mendeleef and Siljerström have announced considerable deviations from Boyle's law, Amagat finds that law verified in the case of air to the full degree of accuracy that the observations admit of. In principle Amagat's method is very simple. The reservoir consists mainly of two nearly equal bulbs, situated one above the other and connected by a comparatively narrow passage. By the rise of mercury from a mark below the lower bulb to another on the connecting passage, the volume is altered in a known ratio which is nearly that of 2 : 1. The corresponding pressures are read with a specially constructed differential manometer. Of this the lower part which penetrates the mercury of the cistern is single. Near the top it divides into a U, widening at the level of the surface of the mercury into tubes of 2 centims. diameter. Higher up again these tubes re-unite and by means of a three-way tap can be connected either with an air-pump or with the upper bulb. Suitable taps are provided by which the two branches can be isolated from one another.

In order to be audible, sounds must be restricted to a certain range of pitch. Thus a sound from a hydrogen flame vibrating in a large resonator was inaudible, as being too low in pitch. On the other side, a bird-call, giving about 20,000 vibrations per second, was inaudible, although a sensitive flame readily gave evidence of the vibrations and permitted the wave-length to be measured. Near the limit of hearing the ear is very rapidly fatigued; a sound in the first instance loud enough to be disagreeable, disappearing after a few seconds. A momentary intermission, due, for example, to a rapid passage of the hand past the ear, again allows the sound to be heard.

The magnitude of vibration necessary for audition at a favourable pitch is an important subject for investigation. The earliest estimate is that of Boltzmann. An easy road to a superior limit is to find the amount of energy required to blow a whistle and the distance to which the sound can be heard (e.g. one-half a mile). Experiments upon this plan gave for the amplitude 8 × 10−8cm., a distance which would need to be multiplied 100 times in order to make it visible in any possible microscope. Better results may be obtained by using a vibrating fork as a source of sound. The energy resident in the fork at any time may be deduced from the amplitude as observed under a microscope.

The law of equal partition, enunciated first by Waterston for the case of point molecules of varying mass, and the associated Boltzmann-Maxwell doctrine respecting steady distributions have been the subject of much difference of opinion. Indeed, it would hardly be too much to say that no two writers are fully agreed. The discussion has turned mainly upon Maxwell's paper of 1879, to which objections have been taken by Lord Kelvin and Prof. Bryan, and in a minor degree by Prof. Boltzmann and myself. Lord Kelvin's objections are the most fundamental. He writes: “But, conceding Maxwell's fundamental assumption, I do not see in the mathematical workings of his paper any proof of his conclusion ‘that the average kinetic energy corresponding to any one of the variables is the same for every one of the variables of the system.’ Indeed, as a general proposition its meaning is not explained, and it seems to me inexplicable. The reduction of the kinetic energy to a sum of squares leaves the several parts of the whole with no correspondence to any defined or definable set of independent variables.”

In a short note written soon afterwards I pointed out some considerations which appeared to me to justify Maxwell's argument, and I suggested the substitution of Hamilton's principal function for the one employed by Maxwell.

In recent experiments by myself and by others upon the density of hydrogen, the gas has always been dried by means of phosphoric anhydride; and a doubt may remain whether on the one hand the removal of aqueous vapour is sufficiently complete, and on the other whether some new impurity may not be introduced. I thought that it would be interesting to weigh hydrogen dried in an entirely different manner, and this I have recently been able to effect with the aid of liquid air, acting as a cooling agent, supplied by the kindness of Professor Dewar from the Royal Institution. The operations of filling and weighing were carried out in the country as hitherto. I ought, perhaps, to explain that the object was not so much to make a new determination of the highest possible accuracy, as to test whether any serious error could be involved in the use of phosphoric anhydride, such as might explain the departure of the ratio of densities of oxygen and hydrogen from that of 16 : 1. I may say at once that the result was negative.

Each supply consisted of about 6 litres of the liquid, contained in two large vacuum-jacketed vessels of Professor Dewar's design, and it sufficed for two fillings with hydrogen at an interval of two days. The intermediate day was devoted to a weighing of the globe empty.

Arago's theory of this phenomenon is still perhaps the most familiar, although I believe it may be regarded as abandoned by the best authorities. According to it the momentary disappearance of the light of the star is due to accidental interference between the rays which pass the two halves of the pupil of the eye or the object-glass of the telescope. When the relative retardation amounts to an odd multiple of the half wave-length of any kind of light, such light, it is argued, vanishes from the spectrum of the star. But this theory is based upon a complete misconception. “It is as far as possible from being true that a body emitting homogeneous light would disappear on merely covering half the aperture of vision with a half wave plate. Such a conclusion would be in the face of the principle of energy, which teaches plainly that the retardation in question would leave the aggregate brightness unaltered.” It follows indeed from the principle of interference that there will be darkness at the precise point which before the introduction of the half wave plate formed the centre of the image, but the light missing there is to be found in a slightly displaced position.

According to the theory of the Röntgen rays suggested by Sir G. Stokes, and recently developed by Prof. J. J. Thomson, their origin is to be sought in impacts of the charged atoms constituting the kathode-stream, whereby pulses of disturbance are generated in the ether. This theory has certainly much to recommend it; but I cannot see that it carries with it some of the consequences which have been deduced as to the distinction between Röntgen rays and ordinary luminous and non-luminous radiation. The conclusion of the authors above mentioned, “that the Röntgen rays are not waves of very short wave-length, but impulses,” surprises me. From the fact of their being highly condensed impulses, I should conclude on the contrary that they are waves of short wave-length. If short waves are inadmissible, longer waves are still more inadmissible. What then becomes of Fourier's theorem and its assertion that any disturbance may be analysed into regular waves?

Is it contended that previous to resolution (whether merely theoretical, or practically effected by the spectroscope) the vibrations of ordinary (e.g. white) light are regular, and thus distinguished from disturbances made up of impulses? This view was certainly supported in the past by high authorities, but it has been shown to be untenable by Gouy, Schuster, and the present writer. A curve representative of white light, if it were drawn upon paper, would show no sequences of similar waves.

BY the present volume the Collection of Papers is brought down to the end of 1901. The diversity of subjects—many of them, it is to be feared, treated in a rather fragmentary manner—is as apparent as ever, and is perhaps intensified by the occurrence of papers recording experimental work on gases. The memoir on Argon (Art. 214) by Sir W. Ramsay and myself is included by special permission of my colleague.

A Classified Table of Contents and an Index of Names are appended. The large number of references to the works of Sir George Stokes, Lord Kelvin and Maxwell, as well as of Helmholtz and some other investigators abroad, will shew to whom I have been most indebted for inspiration.

I desire also to record my obligations to the Syndics and Staff of the University Press for the efficient and ever courteous manner in which they have carried out my wishes in the republication of this long series of memoirs.

Professor J. V. Jones has shown that the coefficient of mutual induction (M) between a circle and a coaxial helix is the same as between the circle and a uniform circular cylindrical current-sheet of the same radial and axial dimensions as the helix, if the currents per unit length in helix and sheet be the same. This conclusion is arrived at by comparison of the integrals resulting from an application of Neumann's formula; and it may be of interest to show that it can be deduced directly from the general theory of lines of force.

In the first place, it may be well to remark that the circuit of the helix must be supposed to be completed, and that the result will depend upon the manner in which the completion is arranged. In the general case the return to the starting-point might be by a second helix lying upon the same cylinder; but for practical purposes it will suffice to treat of helices including an integral number of revolutions, so that the initial and final points lie upon the same generating line. The return will then naturally be effected along this straight line.

Let us now suppose that the helix, consisting of one revolution or of any number of complete revolutions, is situated in a field of magnetic force symmetrical with respect to the axis of the helix.

The present paper may be regarded as a development of previous researches by the author upon allied subjects. When the character of the obstacle differs only infinitesimally from that of the surrounding medium, a solution may be obtained independently of the size and the form which it presents. But when this limitation is disregarded, when, for example, in the case of aerial vibrations the obstacle is of arbitrary compressibility and density, or in the case of electric vibrations when the dielectric constant and the permeability are arbitrary, the solutions hitherto given are confined to the case of small spheres, or circular cylinders. In the present investigation extension is made to ellipsoids, including flat circular disks and thin blades.

The results arrived at are limiting values, strictly applicable only when the dimensions of the obstacles are infinitesimal, and at distances outwards which are infinitely great in comparison with the wave-length (λ). The method proceeds by considering in the first instance what occurs in an intermediate region, where the distance (r) is at once great in comparison with the dimensions of the obstacle and small in comparison with λ. Throughout this region and within it the calculation proceeds as if λ were infinite, and depends only upon the properties of the common potential. When this problem is solved, extension is made without much difficulty to the exterior region where r is great in comparison with λ, and where the common potential no longer avails.

Lord Rayleigh stated that he had been investigating the nature of these processes, and gave a most interesting description of the results. He first pointed out that the process of grinding with emery is not, as is commonly supposed, a scratching process. The normal effect is the production of isolated detached pits—not scratches. The glass gives way under the emery; at the same time the emery gives way under the glass and suffers abrasion. An image seen through glass which has been finely ground (but not yet polished) has perfect definition. And so when the sun is viewed through a cloud the image is sharp as long as there is an image; even when the cloud thickens, the edge appears to be sharp until we lose the image altogether. A glass lens finely ground gives very good definition, but there is great loss of light by irregular reflection. To obviate this, the lens is polished, and examination under the microscope shows that in the process of polishing with pitch and rouge the polishing goes on entirely on the surface or plateau, the bottom of each pit being left untouched until the adjoining surface is entirely worked down to it. It appeared interesting to investigate the amount of glass removed during the process of polishing. This was done both by weighing and interference methods, and the amount removed was found to be surprisingly small.