A decade of observing with HST also coincides with the completion of the last of the initial three Key Projects for HST, the measurement of the Hubble constant, H0. Here we present the final results of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Key Project to measure the Hubble constant, summarizing our method, the results and the uncertainties. The Key Project results are based on a Cepheid calibration of several secondary distance methods applied over the range of about 60 to 400 Mpc. Based on the Key Project Cepheid calibration and its application to five secondary methods (type Ia supernovae, the Tully-Fisher relation, surface brightness fluctuations, type II supernovae, and the fundamental plane for elliptical galaxies), a combined value of H0 = 72 ± 8 km/sec/Mpc is obtained. An age conflict is avoided for current estimates of globular clusters and H0 if we live in A-dominated (or other form of dark energy) universe.

Introduction

When planning HST, pinning down H0 was one of the scientific programs that drove the design and construction of the telescope. Although the original plans for a Large Space Telescope were scaled down during the mid-1970s, one of the primary arguments for an aperture of at least 2.4m was to enable the detection of Cepheid variables in the Virgo cluster (Smith 1989), a goal that was achieved within months of the corrective optics being installed in HST in December, 1993.

One of the brightest and most variable UV emissions in the solar system comes from Jupiter's UV aurora. The auroras have been imaged with each camera on HST, starting with the pre-COSTAR FOC and continuing with increasing sensitivity to the present with STIS. This paper presents a short overview of the scientific results on Jupiter's aurora obtained from HST UV images and spectra, plus a short discussion of Saturn's aurora.

The Earth's aurora: Present understanding

With a long history of ground-based and spacecraft measurements, we now have some understanding of the physics of the Earth's auroral processes. A general picture of the nature of auroral activity on the Earth has evolved, without a complete understanding of the many details. In general, auroral emissions are produced by high energy charged particles precipitating into the Earth's upper atmosphere from the magnetosphere (the region of space where the motions of particles are governed by the Earth's magnetic field). It is well established that the Earth's auroral activity is related to solar activity, and more specifically to conditions in the solar wind reaching the Earth. The precipitating charged particles are accelerated to high energies in the Earth's magnetosphere, with some acceleration occurring in the magnetotail region and some occurring by fieldaligned potentials in the topside ionosphere.

Welcome to amateur astronomy! If you are new to this field, and especially if you have never owned a telescope before, this chapter is for you. Otherwise, feel free to skip ahead. I've tried to write a book that I'll actually use while observing. Parts of it are quite specialized; take what suits you and save the rest for later.

Amateur astronomy, like other hobbies, is something you can go for a little or a lot. Computerized telescopes make casual stargazing easier than ever before, since you don't have to gather up star maps and look up planet positions before going out under the sky. At the other end of the spectrum, the advanced amateur with a busy, semi-professional observing program will find that a computerized telescope is a real time-saver. Both approaches to amateur astronomy are respectable, and so is everything in between.

The key to enjoyment is to have realistic expectations and continue building your knowledge and skill. Looking through a telescope is a very different experience from looking at photographs in books, and it may take some getting used to. If you don't already have a telescope, get some experience looking through other people's telescopes before buying one of your own. Contact a local astronomy club if possible.

Using a telescope

Newcomers are sometimes surprised to find that spectacular objects such as the Horsehead Nebula are not normally visible in telescopes at all – the eye cannot accumulate light the way the camera does.

Chasing eclipses

The proverb that lightning never strikes twice in the same place is, in fact, false. The proverb is truer of an eclipse. It has been calculated that, on average, a total eclipse of the Sun can be seen from the same spot only once every 410 years. So, if you really want to see one, you must take Rebecca Joslin's advice and go '… on the chase'. If you set your heart on seeing one, sooner or later, you will see an eclipse; and you may find, as many have before you, that no sooner have you seen it, than you start planning to see the next one. Part of the attraction is that solar eclipses don't occur very often. On average there is one every 18 months. But, even if they were more common, people would still go out of their way to see them: they are spectacular events, arguably the most breathtaking that the sky has to offer.

Overview

Photography gives you a way to record what you see through the telescope. Surprisingly, though, astrophotography does not reproduce what you see visually. In lunar and planetary work, it is very hard to get pictures as sharp as what the eye can see, because the eye can seize moments of atmospheric steadiness in a way that the camera cannot. In deep-sky work, on the other hand, the camera often records far more than the eye could see with the same instrument because film can accumulate light in a long exposure.

This chapter will tell you enough about astrophotography to get you started. It is not a complete guide; for that, see my other book, Astrophotography for the Amateur (Cambridge University Press, 1999).

One word of advice: astrophotography is a matter of skill, not just equipment. It is definitely not a matter of “You press the button, we do the rest” – it is a stiff test of how well you understand your equipment and the principles on which it operates. Never buy a piece of equipment until you know exactly what you'll use it for.

There is also an element of luck. The pictures that you see published in magazines are the work of experienced astrophotographers and are generally the best of many, many tries. Do not expect to equal them immediately.

But some techniques do yield very good pictures even in the hands of a beginner.

The lure of the deep sky

The “deep sky” is the sky beyond the Solar System, and while it theoretically includes all stars except the Sun, in practice “deep-sky observing” means observing star clusters, nebulae, and galaxies.

For many amateur astronomers, including myself, deep-sky observing is the most interesting specialty, the most far-ranging form of celestial sightseeing. We bought our telescopes in order to see the universe. For the variety of sights and the variety of astrophysical processes behind them, deep-sky observing is unsurpassed.

Critics point out that deep-sky observers are unlikely to contribute anything to science, since most of the objects are near the limit of visibility in amateur telescopes, and apart from occasional supernovae in distant galaxies, there is nothing that amateur equipment can discover. That doesn't deter us. Seeing the sights is enough.

Deep-sky objects

Asterisms

An asterism is any small group of stars that catches the eye, whether or not the stars form a cluster in space. M73, for instance, is an asterism of four stars in Aquarius.

In recent years, amateur astronomers have given colorful names to numerous telescopic asterisms, many of which were enumerated by Philip S. Harrington in The Deep Sky: An Introduction (Sky Publishing, 1998). That book is actually an excellent overall guide to deep-sky observing and includes a small but useful star atlas. I must confess to having subsequently named two asterisms myself, Webb's Horseshoe (p. 207) and the Perfect Right Angle (p. 245).

A brief history of the sky

You do not need to be told that day and night are not the same. But in what does their difference consist? That the one is light and the other dark? Surely there is more to them than this? There is, and it is this: the absence of airlight allows us to see stars and planets. Their nightly drift across the sky is much more than mere spectacle, though it certainly is that, for it is one of the few clues we have to the fact that we inhabit a spinning sphere of solid matter racing through a void.

The Solar System

For most people, mention of the Solar System probably conjures up that well-known image of nine concentric circles, each representing the orbit of a planet, all more-or-less centred on the Sun. In fact, this image is presented from a vantage-point that no human has ever occupied, somewhere far outside the Solar System. From such a distance, the only thing that you would see of the Solar System is the Sun, reduced to an extremely bright point of light. Without a telescope you would be unable to see Jupiter, the largest planet, let alone any of the other planets. The fact is, by any objective measure, such as mass, diameter or brightness, planets are insignificant motes compared with stars. Yet, what would the Solar System be without planets? Planets loom large in our view of the cosmos for several reasons, not the least of which is that we happen to inhabit one of them.

Many older maps still use epoch 1950 coordinates. To convert right ascensions and declinations from 1950 to 2000, find the entry in Table B.1 nearest the object's position in the sky and add the corrections indicated there.

To convert 2000 coordinates to 1900 for AAVSO variable-star designations and the like, double the tabulated correction and apply it in the opposite direction (subtracting instead of adding and vice versa).

To calculate precession, let α and δ stand for the object's initial right ascension and declination respectively, both expressed in degrees. (Recall that 1h = 15°.) Let N stand for the number of years between epochs (negative if you are converting from a later epoch to an earlier one). Then compute:

R.A. correction (in seconds) = (3.073 + 1.336 sin α tan δ) × N

Declination correction (in arc-seconds) = (20.042 cos α) × N

and add the corrections to the original R.A. and declination.

These formulae are for dates within a couple of centuries of 2000 and positions at least 0.1° away from the celestial poles. For more accurate formulae see the Astronomical Almanac published by the U.S. and British governments.

The Moon

Phases of the Moon

We often make jokes about activities that depend on the phases of the Moon, but amateur astronomy really does. When the Moon is high in the sky, especially if it is full or nearly full, you can't see faint stars, nebulae, or galaxies. Conversely, if you want to observe the Moon you need to know when and where it is going to appear.

Accordingly, all astronomical observers need to keep track of the phases of the moon. Figure 3.1 summarizes the whole cycle. The Casio “Forester” wristwatch, marketed to hikers and fishermen, keeps track of the cycle for you.

The Moon stays close to the ecliptic, though not precisely on it, and moves eastward, making a full circle relative to the stars every 27.32 days (one sidereal month). This means that it moves its own apparent width (half a degree) in slightly less than an hour. You can watch this happen when the Moon passes near a bright star.

The cycle of phases, or synodic month, takes 29.53 days. This is longer than the sidereal month because the Sun and Moon are moving in the same direction; the Moon has to move more than a full circle in order to catch up.