Introduction

Summary

ONE OF THE MOST significant developments of the Middle Ages was the adoption and use of gunpowder artillery. This technology originated in China and had reached Western Europe by the early fourteenth century. One of the earliest known images of a European gun is depicted in the treatise De Nobilitatibus, Sapientiis, et Prudentiis Regum given by the scholar Walter de Milemete to Edward III on his accession to the throne in 1327. This shows a cauldron-shaped gun lying on a trestle which is firing a quarrel or arrow-shaped projectile at a building. Over time the new technology gradually transformed the conduct of warfare in Western Europe, at first by supplanting traditional mechanical artillery and then personal missile weapons, such as the crossbow or longbow. Guns eventually came to be used in all aspects of military operations, in sieges, on the battlefield and in naval warfare, with kings, nobles and burgesses all spending large sums of money on these prestigious weapons. The growing effectiveness of gunpowder artillery also prompted significant changes in the conduct and organisation of warfare. New types of professionals were employed to manufacture, repair and operate guns, with the need to manage and organise artillery efficiently leading to the development of new administrative systems. This was necessary as the logistical requirements of transporting and supplying ordnance to armies, fleets and garrisons increased over time. In the case of transportation, the provision of large numbers of carts, pack animals and auxiliary workers became essential for the effective operation of field trains during campaigns. The fortifications of towns and castles were also adapted to better withstand gunshot and to maximise the use of defensive firepower, which led to radical changes in the design of these structures. These changes contributed to the increasing cost of waging war for late medieval states, whose rulers were obliged to adopt new measures to increase their incomes, to ensure that they could keep pace with their rivals.

The significance of gunpowder artillery has long been recognised by historians of the Middle Ages. Surprisingly, despite this, the English experience of using firearms lacks its own specialist treatment in a monograph, although certain areas have been examined in some detail.