Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T23:58:07.350Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

7 - Substance abuse in youth offenders

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 August 2009

By
Deborah R. Simkin
Edited by
Carol L. Kessler  and
Louis James Kraus
Deborah R. Simkin
Affiliation:
4641 Gulfstarr Drive Suite 106 Destin, FL 32541 USA
Carol L. Kessler
Affiliation:
Columbia University, New York
Louis James Kraus
Affiliation:
Rush University, Chicago
Get access

Summary

Introduction

A Congressional study in 2004 found that two-thirds of juvenile detention facilities hold youth who are waiting for community based mental health care. Part of the lack of services can possibly be related to a shortage of both outpatient community based and inpatient beds. Overall, the number of inpatient psychiatric beds per capita for adults and children in the United States has dropped by 62 percent since 1970. Publicly run facilities (state and county) have had a more dramatic decline of 89 percent inpatient psychiatric beds per capita. Due to the lack of facilities, a 2003 study by the General Accounting Office found that 9000 families relinquished custody of their children to juvenile justice systems for the sole purpose of accessing mental health services they could not find or afford. However, in 2001, only 16 percent of crimes committed by juveniles were violent. So we have a history of decreased mental health services, increased numbers of youth who are housed in juvenile justice systems awaiting treatment, and insufficient resources either in the juvenile justice facilities or in the community to handle the needs of these youth (Koppelman, 2005).

Although adolescents in the juvenile justice system experience much higher rates of psychiatric disorders than adolescents in the general population (Shelton, 2001), what brings them to the attention of the juvenile justice system is an often co-occurring substance abuse disorder.

Keywords

juvenile justice systempsychiatric disordersrisk factorssubstance abuseyouth offenders
Type
Chapter
Information
The Mental Health Needs of Young Offenders
Forging Paths toward Reintegration and Rehabilitation
 , pp. 146 - 179
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abram, K. M. (2004). Posttraumatic stress disorder and trauma in youth in juvenile justice. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61(4), 403–410.Google Scholar
Alexander, J. F. & Parsons, B. V. (1982). Functional Family Therapy. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Alford, G. S., Koehler, R. A. & Leonard, J. (1991). Alcoholics anonymous-narcotics anonymous model for inpatient treatment of chemically dependent adolescents: a two year study. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 52(2), 118–261.Google Scholar
Azrin, N. H., Acierno, R., Kogan, E., et al. (1996). Follow-up results of supportive versus behavioral therapy for illicit drug abuse. Behavioral Research and Therapy, 34(1), 41–46.Google Scholar
Babor, T. F., Hoffman, M., Del Boca, F. K.et al. (1992). Types of alcoholics I. Evidence for an empirically derived topology based on indicators of vulnerability and solvent. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 599–608.Google Scholar
Baldessarini, R. T., Tondo, L. & Hennen, J. (2001). Treating suicidal patients with bipolar disorder. Reducing suicide risk with lithium. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 932, 24–28.Google Scholar
Baumrind, D. (1983). Familial antecedents of adolescent drug use. A developmental perspective. In Jones, C. L. and Battjes, R. J., eds., Etiology of Drug Abuse: Implications-Prevention. NIDA Research Monographs, 56, 13–44.
Bennett, E. M. & Kempfer, K. J. (1994). Is abuse during childhood a risk factor for developing substance abuse problems as an adult? Journal of Development and Behavioural Pediatrics, 15(6), 426–429.Google Scholar
Brent, D. A., Perper, J. A. & Allman, C. J. (1987). Alcohol, firearms, and suicide among youth. Journal of the American Medical Association, 257, 3369–3372.Google Scholar
Bukstein, O. G., Brent, D. A., Perper, J. A.et al. (1993). Risk factors for completed suicide among adolescents with a lifetime history of substance abuse: a case control study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 88(6), 403–408.Google Scholar
Carroll, et al. (2006). The use of contingency and motivational/skills-building therapy to treat young adults with marijuana dependence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(5), 955–956.Google Scholar
Castellanos, F. (2002). Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with ADHD. Journal of the American Medical Association, 28(14), 1740–1748.Google Scholar
Chambers, R. A., Taylor, J. R. & Potenza, M. N. (2003). Developmental neurocircuitry of motivation in adolescence: a critical period of addiction vulnerability. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1041–1052.Google Scholar
Chan-Ob, T., Kuntawongse, N. & Boonyanaruthee, V. (2001). Bupropion for amphetamine withdrawal syndrome. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand, 84(12), 1763–1765.Google Scholar
Clark, D. B., Kirisci, L. & Tarter, R. E. (1998). Adolescent versus adult onset and the development of substance use disorders in males. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 49(2), 115–121.Google Scholar
Cloniger, C. R., Bohman, M. C., Sigvardisson, S. et al. (1985). Psychopathology in adopted out children of alcoholics. The Stockholm Adoption Study. In Galanter, M., ed., Recent Developments in Alcoholism. New York: Plenum Press, 37–50.
Cocozza, J. & Skowyra, K. (2000). Youth with mental health disorders: issues and emerging responses. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Juvenile Justice Journal, (7) 1, 1–5.Google Scholar
Coffey, C., Wolfe, R., Lovett, A. W.et al. (2004). Predicting death in young offenders: a retrospective cohort study. The Medical Journal of Australia, 181(9), 473–477.Google Scholar
Coles, C. D., Platzman, K. A., Raskind-Hood, C. L.et al. (1997). A comparison of children affected by prenatal alcohol exposure and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 21(1), 150–161.Google Scholar
Costello, E. J., Erkanli, A. & Federman, E. (1999). Development of psychiatric co-morbidity with substance abuse in adolescents: effects of timing and sex. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28 (3), 298–311.Google Scholar
Couwenbergh, C.et al. (2006). Comorbid psychopathology in adolescents and young adults treated for substance use disorders: a review. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 15(6), 319–328.Google Scholar
DeWitt, D. J., Adlaf, E. M., Offord, D. R.et al. (2000). Age of first alcohol use: a risk factor for the development of alcohol disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 745–750.Google Scholar
Dishion, T. J., Spracklin, K. M., Andrews, D. W.et al. (1996). Deviancy training in male adolescent friendships. Behavior Therapy, 27, 373–390.Google Scholar
Disney, E. R., Elkins, I. J., Mc Gue, M.et al. (1997). Effects of ADHD, conduct disorder and gender on substance use abuse in adolescents. American Journal of Psychobiology, 156(10), 1515–1521.Google Scholar
Duncan, T. E., Biglan, A. & Ary, D. V. (1998). Contributions of the social context to the development of adolescent substance use: a multivariate latent growth modeling approach. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 50, 57–71.Google Scholar
Ebrahim, S. H., Luman, E., Floyd, R. L. et al. (1998). Alcohol consumption by pregnant women in the United States 1988–95. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 92(2), 187–192.Google Scholar
Fallon, T. & Pumariega, A. (2000). The child and adolescent levels of care utilization services for psychiatric and addiction services. Presented at the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry's Annual Conference.
Fast, D. K., Conry, J. & Loock, C. A. (1999). Identifying Fetal Alcohol Syndrome among youth in the criminal juvenile justice system. Journal of Developmental and Behavioural Pediatrics, 20(5), 370–372.Google Scholar
Feeney, G. F.et al. (2005). Cannabis dependence and mental health perception amongst people diverted by police after arrest for cannabis-related offending behavior in Australia. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 15(4), 249–260.Google Scholar
Fiorentine, R. & Milhouse, M. P. (2000). Exploring the addictive effects of drug misuse treatment and twelve step involvement: does twelve-step ideology matter?Substance Use and Misuse, 35(3), 367–397.Google Scholar
Geller, B., Cooper, T. B., Sein, K.et al. (1998). Double blind and placebo controlled study of lithium for adolescent bipolar disorders with secondary substance dependence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37(2), 171–178.Google Scholar
Gilman, J. M., Bjork, J. M. & Hommer, D. W. (2007). Parental alcohol use and brain volume in early and late onset alcoholics. Biological Psychiatry, in press.Google Scholar
Grella, C., Stein, J. & Greenwell, L. (2005). Association among childhood trauma, adolescent problem behaviors and adverse adult outcomes in substance abusing women offenders. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 19(1), 43–53.Google Scholar
Grisso, T., Barnum, R. & Fletcher, J. (2001). Massachusetts's youth screening instrument for mental health needs of juvenile justice youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(5), 541–548.Google Scholar
Hambrecht, M. & Hafner, H. (2000). Cannabis, vulnerability and onset of schizophrenia: an epidemiological perspective. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 34, 468–475.Google Scholar
Hansen, W. B. (1996). Prevention programs: What are the critical factors that spell success? National Conference on Drug Prevention Research: Presentations, Papers and Recommendations, Plenary session. National Institute of Drug Abuse.
Harrell, A. V. & Wirtz, P. W. (1989). Screening for adolescent problem drinking: validation of a multi-dimensional instrument for case identification. Psychological Assessment, 1, 61–63.Google Scholar
Harrington, R., Kroll, L., Rothwell, J.et al. (2005). Psychosocial needs of boys in secure care for serious or persistent offending. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(8), 859–866.Google Scholar
Hartney, C., Wordes, M. & Krisberg, B. (2002). Health care for our troubled youth: provision of services in the foster care and juvenile justice systems of California. National Council on Crime and Delinquency, available at www.Calendow.org/reference/publications/pdf/mental/TCEo315-2002_Health_Care_Fo.pdf.
Heil, S. H., Holmes, W. K., Bickel, S. T.et al. (2002). Comparison of the subjective, physiological and psychomotor effects of atomoxetine and methylphenidate in light drug users. Drug and Alcohol Dependency, 67, 149–156.Google Scholar
Henggeler, S. W., Clingempeel, W. G., Brondino, M. J.et al. (2002). Four-year follow-up of multisystemic therapy with substance-abusing and substance-dependent juvenile offenders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(7), 868–874.Google Scholar
Henggeler, S. W., Halliday-Boykins, C. A., Cunningham, P. B.et al. (2006). Juvenile drug court: enhancing outcomes by integrating evidence-based treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(1), 42–54.Google Scholar
Hops, H. A., Davis, B. & Lewin, L. M. (1999). The development of alcohol and other substance use: a gender study of family and peer context. Journal of Studies on Alcohol Supplement, 13, 22–31.Google Scholar
Inciardi, J. A., Martin, S. S., Butzin, C. A.et al. (1997). An effective model of prison-based treatment for drug-involved offenders. Journal of Drug Issues, 27(2), 261–278.Google Scholar
Jaffe, S. L. (1990). Step Workbook for Adolescent Chemical Dependency Recovery: A Guide to the First Five Steps. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc.
Jaffe, S. & Simkin, D. (2002). Alcohol and drug abuse in children and adolescents. In Lewis, ed., Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Textbook.Google Scholar
Jainchill, N., Hawke, J. & Messina, M.Post-treatment outcomes among adjudicated adolescent males and females in modified therapeutic community treatment. Substance Use & Misuse, 40(7), 975–976.
Jasinski, D. R. (2000). An evaluation of the abuse potential of modafinil using methylphenidate as a reference. Psychopharmacology, 14(1), 53–60.Google Scholar
Johnson, B. (2002). Odansetron curbs drinking in some alcoholics. Clinical Psychiatry News. September, 12.Google Scholar
Johnston, L. (2005). Monitoring the Future. University of Michigan, News and Information Services.
Johnston, L. (2006). Monitoring the Future. University of Michigan, News and Information Services.
Kaminer, Y. (1999). Addictive disorders in adolescents. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 22(2), 275–288.Google Scholar
Kaminer, Y. (1994). Adolescent Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Guide to Theory and Practice. Plenum Medical Press.
Kaminer, Y., Burleson, J. A., Blitz, C.et al. (1998). Psychotherapies for substance abusers: a pilot study. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 186, 684–690.Google Scholar
Kandel, D. B., Kessler, R. & Marguiles, J. (1978). Antecedents of adolescent initiation into stages of drug abuse. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 7, 13–40.Google Scholar
Kandel, D. B., Yamaguchi, K. & Chen, K. (1992). Stages of progression in drug involvement from adolescence to adulthood: further evidence for the gateway theory. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 53(5), 447–457.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S. & Presscott, C. A. (1998a). Genetic and environmental risk factors for cannabis use, abuse, dependence: a study of female twins. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155(8) 1016–1022.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S. & Presscott, C. A. (1998b). Genetic and environmental risk factors for cocaine use, dependence: a study of female twins. British Journal of Psychiatry, 173, 345–350.Google Scholar
Kirk, J. & Reid, G. (2001). An examination of the relationship between dyslexia and offending in young people and its implications. Dyslexia, 7(2), 77–84.Google Scholar
Knight, J. R. (1997). Adolescent substance use: screening, assessment, and intervention in medical office practice. Contemporary Pediatrics, 14(4), 45–72.Google Scholar
Knight, J. R., Shrier, L. A., Bravender, T. D.et al. (1999). CRAFFT: A new brief screen for adolescent substance abuse. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 153(6), 591–596.Google Scholar
Knight, J. R., Sherritt, L., Shier, L. A.et al. (2002). Validity of the CRAFFT substance abuse screening test among adolescent clinic patients. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 156(6), 607–614.Google Scholar
Koppelman, J. (2005). Mental health and juvenile justice: moving toward more effective systems of care. Natonal Health Policy Forum, Issue Brief, No. 805, July 22.Google Scholar
Kratochvil, C. J., Heiligenstein, J. H., Dittman, R.et al. (2002). Atomoxetine and methyphenidate treatment in children with ADHD: a prospective, randomized, open-label trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(7), 776–784.Google Scholar
Lee, G. P. & DeClemente, C. C. (1985). Age of onset versus duration of problem drinking on the alcohol use inventory. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 46, 298–402.Google Scholar
Lennings, C. J., Kenny, D. T. & Nelson, P. (2006). Substance use and treatment in young offenders on community orders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 31(4), 425–432.Google Scholar
Li, Y., White, F. J. & Wolf, M. E. (2000). Pharmacological reversal of behavioral and cellular indices of cocaine sensitization in the rat. Psychopharmacology, 151(2–3), 175–183.Google Scholar
Liddle, H. A. & Hogue, A. A. (2000). A family-based, developmental-ecological preventive intervention for high-risk adolescents. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 26(3), 265–279.Google Scholar
Liddle, H. A., Dakof, G. A., Parker, K.et al. (2001). Multidimensional family therapy for adolescent drug abuse: results of a randomized trial. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 27(4), 651–658.Google Scholar
Luna, B. & Sweeney, J. A. (2004). The emergence of collaborative brain function: FMRI studies of the development of response inhibition. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 21, 296–309.Google Scholar
Mattson, S. N. & Riley, E. P. (1999). Implicit and explicit memory functioning in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 5(5), 462–471.Google Scholar
Mattson, S. N., Riley, E. P., Delis, D. C.et al. (1996). Verbal learning and memory in children with fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 20(5) 810–816.Google Scholar
Mattson, S. N., Riley, E. P., Gramling, L.et al. (1998). Neuropsychological comparison of alcohol-exposed children with or without physical features of fetal alcohol syndrome. Neuropsychology, 12(1), 146–153.Google Scholar
Mattson, S. N., Goodman, A. M., Caine, C.et al. (1999). Executive functioning in children with prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 23(11), 1808–1815.Google Scholar
Miller, W. R. & Rollnick, S. (1991). Motivational Interviewing. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Miller, W. R. & Sanchez, V. C. (1994). Motivating young adults for treatment and lifestyle change. In Howard, G. ed., Issues in Alcohol Use and Misuse by Young Adults. Notre Dame IN: University of Notre Dame Press, pp. 51–81.
Monti, P., Colby, S., Barnett, N. & Rohsenow, D. (1998). Brief motivational interviewing in a hospital setting for adolescent smoking: a preliminary study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(3), 574–578.Google Scholar
National Institute for Drug Abuse (2003). Preventing Substance Abuse Among Children and Adolescents – A Researched-Based guide, 2nd edn. NIH pub. no. 04-4212(A).
Newcomb, M. D. (1997). Psychosocial predictors and consequences of drug use: a developmental perspective within a prospective study. Journal of Addictive Disorders, 16(1), 51–89.Google Scholar
Nowinski, J. (1990). Substance Abuse in Adolescents and Young Adults, A Guide to Treatment. New York, NY: N. N. Norton and Company, 59–61.
Prinz, R. J. & Kerns, S. E. (2003). Early substance use by juvenile offenders. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 33(4), 263–277.Google Scholar
Prochaska, J. O. & DiClemente, C. (1982). Transtheoretical theory: toward a more integrated model of change. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice, 19, 276–288.Google Scholar
Rahdert, E. & Czechowicz, D. (1995). Adolescent Drug Abuse: Clinical Assessment and Therapeutic Interventions. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
Rao, U., Ryan, N., Dahl, D. E.et al. (1999). Factors associated with the development of substance use disorders in depressed adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(9), 1109–1117.Google Scholar
Riggs, P. & Whitmore, E. (1999). Substance use disorders and disruptive behavior disorders. In R. Henderson, ed., Disruptive Behavior Disorders in Children and Adolescents. Review of Psychiatry Series Vol. 18.
Riggs, P., Thompson, L., Mikulich, S.et al. (1996). An open trial of pemoline in drug-dependent delinquents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35 (8), 1018–1024.Google Scholar
Riggs, P., Mikulich, S., Coffman, L. M.et al. (1997). Fluoxentine in drug-dependent delinquents with major depression: an open trial. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 7(2), 87–95.Google Scholar
Riggs, P., Leon, S. L., Mikulich, S.et al. (1998). An open trial of buproprion for ADHD in adolescents with substance abuse disorders and conduct disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37(12), 1271–1278.Google Scholar
Rugino, T. A. & Copley, T. C. (2001). Effects of modafinil in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: an open label trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(2), 230–235.Google Scholar
Scheier, L. M., Botvin, C. J., Drag, T.et al. (1999). Social skills, competence and drug refusal efficacy as predictors of adolescent alcohol use. Journal of Drug Education, 29(3), 251–278.Google Scholar
Schuckit, M. A. (1999). New findings in the generics of alcoholism. Journal of the American Medical Association, 281(20), 1875–1876.Google Scholar
Shelton, D. (2001). Young offenders with emotional disorders. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, (33) 3, 259–263.Google Scholar
Simkin, D. R. & Graves, L. (2001). The association between ADHD and processing problems and learning disorders. Presented at the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry's annual conference, Honolulu, Hawaii.
Slavet, J. D.et al. (2006). The Marijuana Ladder: measuring motivation to change marijuana use in incarcerated adolescents. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 83(1), 42–48.Google Scholar
Stacy, A. W., Newcomb, M. D. & Bentler, P. M. (1993). Cognitive motivations and sensation seeking as long term predictors of drinking problems. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 12, 1–24.Google Scholar
Stanton, M. D., Todd, T. C.et al. (1982). The Family Therapy of Drug Abuse and Addiction. New York, NY: Guilford.
Streissguth, A. (1999). Fetal alcohol syndrome and alcohol and pregnancy: new findings. The Union Signal: A Journal of Social Welfare, CXXV(2), 9–15.Google Scholar
Streissguth, A. P. & O'Malley, K. D. (1997). Fetal alcohol syndrome/fetal alcohol effects, secondary disabilities and mental health approaches. Treatment Today, Spring, 16–17.Google Scholar
Streissguth, A. P., Boolstein, F. L., Barr, H. M. et al. (1998). A fetal alcohol behavior scale, Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 22(2), 325–333.Google Scholar
Swan, N. (1995). Early childhood behavior and temperament predict later substance abuse. National Institute on Drug Abuse Notes, 10(1).Google Scholar
Tapert, S. F., Baratta, B. S., Abrantes, B. A.et al. (2002). Attention dysfunction predicts substance involvement in community youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(6), 690–696.Google Scholar
Teplin, L. A. (2002) Psychiatric disorders in youth in juvenile detention. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59(12), 1133–1139.Google Scholar
Turner, A. P.et al. (2005). Identifying a negative mood subtype in incarcerated adolescents: relationship to substance use. Addictive Behaviors, 30(7), 1442–1448.Google Scholar
Uecker, A. & Nadel, L. (1996). Spatial locations gone awry: object and spatial memory deficits in children with fetal syndrome. Neuropsychologia, 34(3), 209–223.Google Scholar
Upadhyaya, H. P., Brady, K. T., Sethuraman, G.et al. (2001). Venlafaxine treatment of patients with co-morbid alcohol/cocaine abuse and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a pilot study. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 21, 116–118.Google Scholar
Volkow, N. D. (2001a). Association of dopamine transporter reduction with psychomotor impairment in methamphetamine abusers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(3), 377–382.Google Scholar
Volkow, N. D. (2001b). Loss of dopamine transporters in methamphetamine abusers recovers with protracted abstinence. Journal of Neuroscience, 21(23), 9414–9418.Google Scholar
Volkow, N. D., Goldstein, R. Z.et al. (2002a). Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(10), 1642–1652.Google Scholar
Volkow, N. D., Thanos, P. K., Freimuth, P.et al. (2002b). Overexpression of dopamine D2 receptors reduces alcohol self-administration. Journal of Neurochemistry, 78(5), 1094–1103.Google Scholar
Volkow, N. D., Fowler, J. S. & Wang, G. J. (2002c). Role of dopamine in drug reinforcement and addiction in humans: results from imaging studies. Behavioral Pharmacology, 13(5–6), 355–366.Google Scholar
Waldron, H. B. (1998). Adolescent substance abuse disorders. In A. Bellack and M. Hersen, eds., Comprehensive Clinical Psychology (Vol. 5: Children and Adolescents: Clinical Formulation and Treatment).
Wasserman, G. A. & McReynolds, L. S. (2006). Suicide risk at juvenile justice intake. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior, 36(2), 239–249.Google Scholar
Whitmore, E. A., Milulick, S. K., Thompson, L. L.et al. (1997). Influences on adolescent substance dependence, conduct disorders, depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and gender. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 47(2), 87–97.Google Scholar
Wilens, T. E., Biederman, J., Millstein, R. B.et al. (1999). Risk for substance use disorders in youth with child and adolescent onset bipolar disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(6), 680–685.Google Scholar
Wold, M. & Kaminer, Y. (1997). Naltrexone for alcohol abuse. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30(11), 6–7.Google Scholar
Wright, B. (2004). Learning problems, delayed development and puberty. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences, 10(6), 9942–9946.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×