Prolegomenon: The Middle Period: 677—729/1278—1329

Summary

This period of Ilkhanid-Kartid control at Herat began inauspiciously. It ended with the Ilkhanate nearing dissolution; the Kartid state politically and financially ascendant; and the economy of Herat flourishing.

Political, social, and economic conditions in Khurasan (generally), and in Herat (specifically), were impacted by events beyond Kartid control: Jochid-Toluid, Chaghataid-Toluid, Chaghataid-Ögödeid, and Chaghataid-Jochid hostilities on Persia’s frontiers. The Ilkhanid center (Tabriz) and the Mongol imperial center (Qaraqorum) were not focused on Herat. The Chaghataid-Ögödeid alliance under Qaidu challenged Qubilai Qaʾan in Mongolia and Uighuristan in 1268, 1275, 1286, and 1290. The Ilkhanate was pressured by the Golden Horde in the northwest in 1288 and 1290. The Golden Horde, under the leadership of Berke Khan (r. 1257–66), had allied with the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and Syria (r. 1250–1517). Mamluks and Ilkhanids battled in the west, from 1260, until a peace accord was instituted in 1323. Shaken loose in the Ilkhanid-Jochid, Ilkhanid-Ögödeid, and Ilkhanid-Chaghataid struggles were consortia that became principal actors in Khurasan: (1) Jawni-Qurban, (2) Nikudaris, (3) Qaraunas.

Conflict Ecosystem is a concept that emerged with the Pentagon’s misadventures in the Middle East. It may prove helpful toward visualizing the shifting complex of competing or cooperating elements that constitute a specific conflict. Elements within this ecosystem included the Jawni-Qurban, Nikudaris, and Qaraunas (Chapter Three).

The Roving Bandit v. Stationary Bandit concept, about how predators settle and establish nascent polities that become the kernel of government, is also articulated in Chapter Three.

The administration of Herat and its surroundings was in disarray with the death of the first Kartid. Shams al-Dīn’s son, Rukn al-Dīn (r. 677–705/1278–1305), was installed by Abāqā as successor. He took the regnal name, Shams al-Dīn Kihīn (“the Younger”). He was an absent king who preferred the safety of the Kartids’ Ghurid homestead, Fort Khaysār, to administering his domains from Herat (Chapter Three).

Fakhr al-Dīn Kart was installed at Herat by Nawrūz (d. 696/1297), a Mongol amir who became instrumental in the accession of Il-Khan Maḥmūd Ghāzān. The Nawruzid-Kartid union, which had fused two headstrong men, was dissolved (Chapters Three and Four).