References

Patrick M. Morgan

doi:10.1017/CBO9780511491573.010

Achen, Christopher H., 1987, “A Darwinian View of Deterrence,” in Jacek Kugler and Frank C. Zagare, eds., Exploring the Stability of Deterrence, Boulder: Lynne Rienner, pp. 90–105

Achen, Christopher H. and Snidal, Duncan, 1989, “Rational Deterrence Theory and Comparative Case Studies,” World Politics vol. 41 no. 2 (January), pp. 143–169CrossRef Google Scholar

Adams, James, 1997, “Peril of Primed Nuclear Missiles,” Sunday Times (London), May 18

Alexander, John B., 1999, Future War: Non-Lethal Weapons in Twenty-First Century Warfare, New York: St. Martin's Press

Allison, Graham T. and Philip Zelikow, 1999, Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis, 2nd edn., New York: Longman

Amili, Gitty M., 1997, “A Larger Role for Positive Sanctions in Cases of Compellance?” UCLA Center for International Relations Working Paper No. 12, May

Arkin, William M., 1996, “Calculated Ambiguity: Nuclear Weapons and the Gulf War,” Washington Quarterly vol. 19 no. 4 (Autumn), pp. 3–19CrossRef Google Scholar

Arkin, William M. 2002a, “The Rules of Engagement,” Los Angeles Times, April 21

Arkin, William M. 2002b, “Secret Plan Outlines the Unthinkable,” Los Angeles Times, March 10

Arms Control Today, 1997, “Clinton Issues New Guidelines on U.S. Nuclear Weapons Doctrine,” Arms Control Today vol. 27 no. 8 (November/December), p. 23

Arquilla, John, 1992, Dubious Battles: Aggression, Defeat, and the International System, Washington, DC: Taylor and Francis

Arquilla, John and Paul K. Davis, 1994, “Extended Deterrence, Compellance and the ‘Old World Order,’” RAND paper, Santa Monica

Arquilla, John and David F. Ronfeldt, 1996, The Advent of Netwar, Santa Monica: RAND

Arquilla, John and David F. Ronfeldt 1997, eds., In Athena's Camp: Preparing for Conflict in the Information Age, Santa Monica: RAND

Axelrod, Robert M., 1984, The Evolution of Cooperation, New York: Basic Books

Bacevich, Andrew J., 1995, “The Use of Force in Our Time,” The Wilson Quarterly vol. 19 (Winter), pp. 50–63

Bailey, Kathleen, 1995, “Why We Have to Keep the Bomb,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (January–February), pp. 30–37

Baker, John, Kevin O'Connell, and Ray Williamson, 2000, eds., Commercial Observation Satellites: At the Leading Edge of Global Transparency, Santa Monica: RAND

Baldwin, David A., 1995, “Security Studies and the End of the Cold War,” World Politics vol. 48 no. 1 (October), pp. 117–141CrossRef Google Scholar

Ball, Desmond, 1984, “U.S. Strategic Forces: How Would they Be Used?” in Steven E. Miller, ed., Strategy and Nuclear Deterrence, Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 215–224

Ball, Desmond and Robert Toth, 1990, “Revising the Single Integrated Operations Plan,” International Security vol. 14 no. 4, pp. 65–92

Baocun, Wang and Mulvenson, James, 2000, “China and the Revolution in military affairs,” Korean Journal of Defense Analysis vol. 12 no. 2 (Winter), pp. 275–304CrossRef Google Scholar

Bar-Joseph, Uri, 1998, “Variations on a Theme: The Conceptualization of Deterrence in Israeli Strategic Thinking,” Security Studies vol. 7 no. 3 (Spring), pp. 145–181CrossRef Google Scholar

Barkenbus, Jack N., 1992, ed., Ethics, Nuclear Deterrence, and War, New York: Paragon House, 1992

Beckman, Peter R., Paul W. Crumlish, Michael N. Dobkowski, and Steven P. Lee, 2000, The Nuclear Predicament: Nuclear Weapons in the Twenty-First Century, 3rd edn., Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall

Bendor, Jonathan and Hammond, Thomas H., 1992, “Rethinking Allison's Models,” American Political Science Review vol. 86 no. 2 (June), pp. 301–322CrossRef Google Scholar

Berkowitz, Bruce D., 1985, “Proliferation, Deterrence, and the Likelihood of Nuclear War,” Journal of Conflict Resolution vol. 29 no. 1 (March), pp. 112–136CrossRef Google Scholar

Betts, Richard K., 1987, Nuclear Blackmail and Nuclear Balance, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution

Betts, Richard K. 1995, “What Will it Take to Deter the United States?” Parameters vol. 25 no. 4 (Winter), pp. 70–79Google Scholar

Betts, Richard K. 1998, “The New Threat of Mass Destruction,” Foreign Affairs vol. 77 no. 1 (January/February), pp. 26–41CrossRef Google Scholar

Bevin, Alexander, 1995, The Future of Warfare, New York: W. W. Norton

Biddle, Stephen, 1996, “Victory Misunderstood: What the Gulf War Tells US About the Future of Conflict,” International Security vol. 21 no. 2 (Fall), pp. 139–179CrossRef Google Scholar

Black, Peter, 1999, “When Melissa Meets Up with Hal,” Los Angeles Times, March 30

Blainey, Geoffrey, 1973, The Causes of War, New York: The Free Press

Blair, Bruce G., 1993, The Logic of Accidental Nuclear War, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution

Blair, Bruce G. 1997, “Taking Nuclear Weapons off Hair-Trigger Alert,” Scientific American, November, pp. 74–81

Blair, Bruce, Harold Feiveson, and Frank von Hippel, 1997, “Redoubling Nuclear Weapons Reduction,” Washington Post, November 12

Blechman, Barry M. and Stephen S. Kaplan, 1978, Force without War: US Forces as a Political Instrument, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution

Blight, James G., 1992, The Shattered Crystal Ball: Fear and Learning in the Cuban Missile Crisis, Lanham, MD: Littlefield Adams

Blight, James G. and Welch, David A., 1998, “What Can Intelligence Tell US About the Cuban Missile Crisis and What Can the Cuban Missile Crisis Tell US about Intelligence?” Intelligence and National Security vol. 13 no. 3 (Autumn), pp. 1–17Google Scholar

Bloch, Ivan, 1998, The Future of War, New York: Doubleday and McClure (originally published 1899)

Bobbitt, Philip, 1988, Democracy and Deterrence: The History and Future of Nuclear Strategy, New York: St. Martin's Press

Bobrow, Davis B., 1999, ed., Prospects for International Relations: Conjectures About the Next Millennium, special issue of International Studies Review, Malden, MA: Blackwell

Booth, Ken, 1991, New Thinking about Strategy and International Security, London: HarperCollins Academic

Bracken, Paul, 1999, Fire in the East: The Rise of Asian Military Power and the Second Nuclear Age, New York: HarperCollins Perennial

Brecher, Michael and Jonathan Wilkenfeld, 1997, A Study of Crisis, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press

Bremer, Stuart A., 1995, “Advancing the Scientific Study of War,” in Stuart A. Bremer and Thomas R. Cusack, eds., The Process of War: Advancing the Scientific Study of War, Amsterdam: Overseas Publishers Association, pp. 1–33

Bremer, Stuart A. and Thomas R. Cusack, 1995, eds., The Process of War: Advancing the Scientific Study of War, Amsterdam: Overseas Publishers Association

Brito, Dagobert L. and Michael D. Intriligator, 1998, “Deterring Nuclear Weapons Proliferation,” UCLA Center for International Relations Working Paper No. 16

Broad, William J., 2000, “We're Ready for Our Close-Ups Now,” New York Times, January 16

Brodie, Bernard, 1959, Strategy in the Missile Age, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Brown, Michael, Owen R. Cote, Jr., Sean M. Lynn-Jones, and Steven E. Miller, 2000, eds., Rational Choice and Security Studies: Stephen Walt and His Critics, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press

Brown, Neville, 1992, The Strategic Revolution: Thoughts for the Twenty-First Century, London: Brassey's

Bueno de Mesquita, Bruce, 1989, “The Contribution of Expected-Utility Theory to the Study of International Conflict,” in Manus I. Midlarsky, ed., Handbook of War Studies, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 143–169

Bueno de Mesquita, Bruce and David Lalman, 1992, War and Reason: Domestic and International Imperatives, New Haven: Yale University Press

Bueno de Mesquita, Bruce and Riker, William H., 1982, “An Assessment of the Merits of Selective Nuclear Proliferation,” Journal of Conflict Resolution vol. 26 no. 2 (June), pp. 283–306CrossRef Google Scholar

Bundy, McGeorge, 1984, “Existential Deterrence and its Consequences,” in Douglas MacLean, ed., The Security Gamble: Deterrence Dilemmas in the Nuclear Age, Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allanheld, pp. 3–13

Bundy, McGeorge 1986, “Risk and Opportunity: Can We Tell them Apart?” in Catherine Kelleher et al., eds., Nuclear Deterrence: New Risks, New Opportunities, Washington: Pergamon, Brassey's, pp. 27–38

Burr, William, 2001, Launch on Warning: The Development of U.S. Capabilities, 1959–1979, A National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book, available at http://www.gwu.edu/%7Ensarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB43

Butler, George Lee, 1998, “The Risks of Deterrence: From Super Powers to Rogue Leaders,” address by General Lee Butler to the National Press Club, Northeast Asia Peace and Security Network Special Report, February 10, available via [email protected]

Butterworth, Robert L., 1992, “Space Systems and the Military Geography of Future Regional Conflicts,” Report no. 14, Center for National Security Studies, Los Alamos National Laboratory, January

Buzan, Barry, 1991a, “Is International Security Possible?” in Ken Booth, ed., New Thinking about Strategy and International Security, London: HarperCollins Academic, pp. 31–55

Buzan, Barry 1991b, People, States and Fear: An Agenda for International Security Studies in the Post-Cold War Era, 2nd edn., Boulder: Lynne Rienner

Buzan, Barry 1994, “The Evolution of Deterrence Theory: Lessons for Israel,” in Aharon Klieman and Ariel Levite, eds., Deterrence in the Middle East: Where Theory and Practice Converge, Boulder: Westview Press, pp. 19–33

Buzan, Barry and Eric Herring, 1999, The Arms Dynamic in World Affairs, Boulder: Lynne Rienner

Buzan, Barry, Jones, Charles, and Little, Richard, 1993, The Logic of Anarchy: Neorealism to Structural Realism, New York: Columbia University Press

Byman, Daniel, Pollack, Kenneth, and Waxman, Mathew, 1998, “Coercing Saddam Hussein: Lessons from the Past,” Survival vol. 40 no. 3 (Autumn), pp. 127–152CrossRef Google Scholar

Cambone, Steven A., 1996, “The United States, Japan, and the Republic of Korea and Theater Missile Defense,” in Tae Hwan Ok and Gerrit W. Gong, eds., Change and Challenge on the Korean Peninsula: Past, Present and Future, vol. VI, Seoul: The Research Institute for National Unification, pp. 87–116

Canberra Commission, 1996, Report of the Canberra Commission on the Elimination of Nuclear Weapons, Canberra: National Capital Printers

Carus, W. Seth, 1994, “Military Technology and the Arms Trade: Changes and Their Impact,” The Annals vol. 535 (September), pp. 153–174Google Scholar

Chan, Steve, 1978, “Chinese Conflict Calculus and Behavior: Assessment from a Perspective of Conflict Management,” World Politics vol. 30 (April), pp. 391–410CrossRef Google Scholar

Chang, Gordon H. and Di, He, 1993, “The Absence of War in the US–China Confrontation over Quemoy and Matsu in 1954–1955: Contingency, Luck, Deterrence?” American Historical Review vol. 98 no. 5, pp. 1500–1524CrossRef Google Scholar

Chellaney, Brahma T., 1994, “Pakistan,” in Mitchell Reiss and Robert S. Litwak, eds., Nuclear Proliferation after the Cold War, Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, pp. 191–205

Chen, Jian, 1994, China's Road to the Korean War, New York: Columbia University Press

Cimbala, Stephen J., 2000, Nuclear Strategy in the Twenty-First Century, Westport, CT: Praeger

Clark, Ian, 2001, The Post-Cold War Order: The Spoils of Peace, New York: Oxford University Press

Cockburn, Andrew and Cockburn, Leslie, 1997, One Point Safe, New York: Anchor Books

Cohen, Avner and Benjamin Frankel, 1991, “Opaque Nuclear Proliferation,” in Benjamin Frankel, ed., Opaque Nuclear Proliferation: Methodological and Policy Implications, London: Frank Cass, pp. 14–44

Cohen, Stephen P., 2001, India: Emerging Power, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution

Commission on Integrated Long Term Strategy, 1988, Sources of Change in the Future Security Environment, Washington, DC: Department of Defense

Cooper, Jeffrey R., 1997, “Another View of the Revolution in Military Affairs,” in John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt, eds., In Athena's Camp: Preparing for Conflict in the Information Age, Santa Monica: RAND, pp. 99–140

Craig, Gordon A. and Alexander L. George, 1995, eds., Force and Statecraft: Diplomatic Problems of our Time, New York: Oxford University Press

Cushman, John H., Jr., 2002, “Rattling New Sabers,” New York Times, March 30

Dao, James, 2002, “Pentagon Study Urges Arms Shift, from Nuclear to High-Tech,” New York Times, January 9

Davis, Paul K. and John Arquilla, 1991, Deterring or Coercing Opponents in Crisis: Lessons from the War with Saddam Hussein, Santa Monica: RAND

Davis, Zachary S. and Benjamin Frankel, 1993, eds., The Proliferation Puzzle: Why Nuclear Weapons Spread (and What Results), London: Frank Cass

Dawes, Robyn M., 1998, Rational Choice in an Uncertain World, Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace

Defense Intelligence Journal, 1999, vol. 8 no. 1 (Summer) – on reconnaissance intelligence

Defense News, 1998, September 14–20 – six articles on UAVs

Delpech, Thérèse, 1998, “French Nuclear Disarmament and Restrictions in the 1990s,” in Barry R. Schneider and William L. Dowdy, eds., Pulling Back from the Nuclear Brink: Reducing and Countering Nuclear Threats, London: Frank Cass, pp. 206–213

DeNardo, James, 1995, The Amateur Strategist: Intuitive Deterrence Theories and the Politics of the Nuclear Arms Race, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, 1994, Joint Publication 1–02, Washington, DC: Government Publications Office

Deutsch, Morton, 1987, “Going Beyond ‘Beyond Deterrence,’” Journal of Social Issues vol. 43 no. 4, pp. 149–153CrossRef Google Scholar

Diamond, John, 1998, “Military Urges U.S. on Nuclear Arms,” Associated Press, reported in NAPSNet Daily Report, March 2, available at ftp://ftp.nautilus.org/napsnet/daily reports

Dickson, P., 1971, Think Tanks, New York: Atheneum

Doran, Charles F., 1999, “The Structural Turbulance of International Affairs,” Survival vol. 41 no. 2 (Summer), pp. 146–149Google Scholar

Dougherty, James E. and Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, Jr., 1981, Contending Theories of International Relations: A Comprehensive Survey, 2nd edn., New York: Harper and Row

Dowler, Thomas W. and Howard, Joseph S. II, 1995, “Stability in a Proliferated World,” Strategic Review vol. 23 no. 2 (Spring), pp. 26–37Google Scholar

Downs, George W., 1989, “The Rational Deterrence Debate,” World Politics vol. 41 no. 2 (January), pp. 225–237CrossRef Google Scholar

Downs, George W. 1994a, “The Limits of Deterrence Theory,” in Aharon Klieman and Ariel Levite, eds., Deterrence in the Middle East: Where Theory and Practice Converge, Boulder: Westview Press, pp. 63–84

Downs, George W. 1994b, ed., Collective Security Beyond the Cold War, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press

Downs, George W. and Keisuke Iida, 1994, “Assessing the Theoretical Case against Collective Security,” in G. W. Downs, ed., Collective Security Beyond the Cold War, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 17–39

Downs, George W. and David M. Rocke, 1990, Tacit Bargaining, Arms Races, and Arms Control, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press

Drogan, Bob, 1999a, “U.S. Scurries to Erect Cyber-Defenses,” Los Angeles Times, October 31

Drogan, Bob 1999b, “In Theory, Reality, U.S. Open to Cyber-Attack,” Los Angeles Times, October 9

Dror, Yehezkel, 1971, Crazy States: a Counterconventional Strategic Problem, Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath and Co.

Durch, William J., 1993, “Protecting the Homeland,” in Barry M. Blechman et al., The American Military in the Twenty-First Century, New York: St. Martin's Press, pp. 197–265

Economist, 1997, “Circles of Fear,” January 4, pp. 47–49

Elster, Jon, 1979, Ulysses and the Sirens, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Erlanger, Steven, 1999, “North Atlantic Treaty Organization Was Closer to Ground War in Kosovo than Is Widely Realized,” New York Times, November 7

Evron, Yair, 1994, “Deterrence Experience in the Arab–Israeli Conflict,” in Aharon Klieman and Ariel Levite, eds., Deterrence in the Middle East: Where Theory and Practice Converge, Boulder: Westview Press, pp. 98–121

Fallaci, Oriana, 1982, “Galtieri: No Regrets, No Going Back,” The Times (London), June 12

Farnham, Barbara, 1994, ed., Avoiding Losses/Taking Risks: Prospect Theory and International Conflict, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press

Fearon, James D., 1994, “Signaling Versus the Balance of Power and Interests,” Journal of Conflict Resolution vol. 38 no. 2 (June), pp. 236–269CrossRef Google Scholar

Fearon, James D. 1995, “Rationalist Explanations for War,” International Organization vol. 49 no. 3 (Summer), pp. 379–414CrossRef Google Scholar

Feaver, Peter Douglas, 1992, Guarding the Guardians: Civilian Control of Nuclear Weapons in the United States, Ithaca: Cornell University Press

Feldman, Shai, 1982, Israeli Nuclear Deterrence: A Strategy for the 1980s, New York: Columbia University Press

Feldman, Shai 1994a, “Israeli Deterrence and the Gulf War,” in Aharon Klieman and Ariel Levite, eds., Deterrence in the Middle East: Where Theory and Practice Converge, Boulder: Westview Press, pp. 122–148

Feldman, Shai 1994b, “Israel,” in Mitchell Reiss and Robert S. Litwak, eds., Nuclear Proliferation After the Cold War, Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, pp. 67–88

Ferejohn, John and Debra Satz, 1995, “Unification, Universalism, and Rational Choice Theory,” in Jeffrey Friedman, ed., The Rational Choice Controversy: Economic Models of Politics Reconsidered, New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 71–84

Fink, Clinton F., 1965, “More Calculations About Deterrence,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, vol. 9, pp. 54–65CrossRef Google Scholar

Fischer, Beth A., 1998, “Perception, Intelligence Errors, and the Cuban Missile Crisis,” Intelligence and National Security vol. 13 no. 3 (Autumn), pp. 150–172Google Scholar

Fischhoff, Baruch, 1987, “Do We Want a Better Theory of Deterrence?” Journal of Social Issues vol. 43 no. 4, pp. 73–77CrossRef Google Scholar

Fischhoff, Baruch 1991, “Nuclear Decisions: Cognitive Limits to the Thinkable,” in Philip E. Tetlock et al., eds., Behavior, Society, and Nuclear War, vol. II, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 110–192Google Scholar

Fisher, Cathleen S., 1999, “Reformation and Resistance: Nongovernmental Organizations and the Future of Nuclear Weapons,” Report no. 29, Henry L. Stimson Center, Washington, DC

Fitchett, Joseph, 1995, “Nuclear States See Vindication,” International Herald Tribune, September 12

Fontaine, Andre, 1972, “DeGaulle's View of Europe and the Nuclear Debate,” The Reporter vol. 27 no. 2 (July 19), pp. 33–34Google Scholar

Frankel, Benjamin, ed., 1991, Opaque Nuclear Proliferation: Methodological and Policy Implications, London: Frank Cass

Freedman, Lawrence, 1981, The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy, New York: St. Martin's Press

Freedman, Lawrence 1989, “General Deterrence and the Balance of Power,” Review of International Studies vol. 15, pp. 199–210CrossRef Google Scholar

Freedman, Lawrence 1996, “Does Deterrence Have a Future?” Future Roles Series Papers no. 5, Sandia National Laboratories, New Mexico

Freedman, Lawrence 1997, “Nuclear Weapons: From Marginalization to Elimination?” Survival vol. 39 no. 1 (Spring), pp. 184–189CrossRef Google Scholar

Freedman, Lawrence 1998a, ed., Strategic Coercion: Concepts and Cases, New York: Oxford University Press

Freedman, Lawrence 1998b, “Military Power and Political Influence,” International Affairs vol. 74 no. 4, pp. 762–779CrossRef Google Scholar

Freedman, Lawrence 1998c, “The Revolution in Strategic Affairs,” Adelphi Paper 318, International Institute for Strategic Studies

Freedman, Lawrence and Efraim Karsh, 1993, The Gulf Conflict 1990–1991: Diplomacy and War in the New World Order, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Friedan, Jeffrey A. and Ronald Rogowski, 1996, “The Impact of the International Economy on National Policies: An Analytical Overview,” in Robert O. Keohane and Helen V. Milner, eds., Internationalization and Domestic Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 25–47

Friedman, Jeffrey, 1995a, ed., The Rational Choice Controversy: Economic Models of Politics Reconsidered, New Haven: Yale University Press

Friedman, Jeffrey 1995b, “Introduction: Economic Approaches to Politics,” in Jeffrey Friedman, ed., The Rational Choice Controversy: Economic Models of Politics Reconsidered, New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 1–24

Friedman, Milton, 1953, Essays in Positive Economics, Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Fulghum, David A., 1999, “New Radars Peel Veil from Hidden Targets,” Aviation Week and Space Technology, January 18

Fursenko, Aleksandr and Timothy Naftali, 1997, “One Hell of a Gamble”: Khrushchev, Castro and Kennedy, New York: W. W. Norton

Gaddis, John Lewis, 1982, Strategies of Containment, New York: Oxford University Press

Gaddis, John Lewis 1991, “Great Illusions, the Long Peace, and the Future of the International System,” in Charles W. Kegley, Jr., ed., The Long Postwar Peace: Contending Explanations and Projections, New York: HarperCollins, pp. 22–55

Gaddis, John Lewis 1992, “Nuclear Weapons, the End of the Cold War, and the Future of the International System,” in Patrick J. Garrity and Steven A. Maaranen, eds., Nuclear Weapons in the Changing World: Perspectives from Europe, Asia, and North America, New York: Plenum Press, pp. 15–31

Gaddis, John Lewis 1996, “Nuclear Weapons and Cold War History,” in Jorn Gjelstad and Olav Njolstad, eds., Nuclear Rivalry and International Order, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 40–54

Gaddis, John Lewis 1997, We Now Know; Rethinking Cold War History, Oxford: Clarendon Press

Gaillard, Theodore, 2000, “Successful THEL Tests Raise Warning Flag for U.S. Arsenal,” Defense News, October 30

Gansler, Jacques, S., 1999, “Technology 2000: Meeting Defense Needs in an Evolving Geopolitical Environment,” remarks at the Tech Trends 2000 Conference, April 17, available at wysiwyg://mid.rig.5/http://www.defense-a…e.com/data/verbatum/data/ve19/index.htm

Garfinkle, Adam, 1995, “An Observation on Arab Culture and Deterrence: Metaphors and Misgivings,” in Efraim Inbar, ed., Regional Security Regimes: Israel and its Neighbors, Albany: State University of New York Press, pp. 201–229

Garrity, Patrick J. and Stephen A. Maaranen, 1992, eds., Nuclear Weapons in the Changing World: Perspectives from Europe, Asia, and North America, New York: Plenum Press

Garthoff, Raymond L., 1991, “Assessing the Adversary: Estimates by the Eisenhower Administration of Soviet Intentions and Capabilities,” Brookings Occasional Paper, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution

Garthoff, Raymond L. 1998, “US Intelligence in the Cuban Missile Crisis,” Intelligence and National Security vol. 13 no. 3 (Autumn), pp. 18–63Google Scholar

Garwin, Richard, 1994, “New Applications of Nonlethal and Less Lethal Technology,” in Arnold Kanter and Linton F. Brooks, eds., U.S. Intervention Policy for the Post-Cold War World: New Challenges and Responses, New York: W. W. Norton, pp. 105–131

Garwin, Richard 1999, Nonlethal Technologies Progress and Prospects, New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press

Geller, Daniel S., 1990, “Nuclear Weapons, Deterrence, and Crisis Escalation,” Journal of Conflict Resolution vol. 34, pp. 291–310CrossRef Google Scholar

Geller, Daniel S. and J. David Singer, 1998, Nations at War: A Scientific Study of International Conflict, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Gellman, Barton, 1999, “Learning from Kosovo,” Washington Post National Weekly Edition, June 14

General Accounting Office, 1999, “DOD Efforts to Develop Laser Weapons for Theater Defense,” GAO/NSIAD-99–50, March

George, Alexander, D. K. Hall and W. E. Simons, 1971, The Limits of Coercive Diplomacy, Boston: Little, Brown

George, Alexander and Richard Smoke, 1974, Deterrence in American Foreign Policy: Theory and Practice, New York: Columbia University Press

George, Alexander 1989, “Deterrence and Foreign Policy,” World Politics vol. 41 no. 2 (January), pp. 170–182CrossRef Google Scholar

Gibler, Douglas and Vasquez, John A., 1998, “Uncovering the Dangerous Alliances, 1495–1980,” International Studies Quarterly vol. 12 no. 4 (December), pp. 785–807CrossRef Google Scholar

Gilpin, Robert, 1981, War and Change in World Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Gjelstad, Jorn and Olav Njolstad, 1996, eds., Nuclear Rivalry and International Order, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Glaser, Charles L., 1990, Analyzing Strategic Nuclear Policy, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Goertz, Gary and Diehl, Paul F., 1992, “The Empirical Importance of Enduring Rivalries,” International Interactions vol. 18 no. 2, pp. 151–163CrossRef Google Scholar

Goertz, Gary 1993, “Enduring Rivalries: Theoretical Constructs and Empirical Patterns,” International Studies Quarterly vol. 37, pp. 147–171CrossRef Google Scholar

Goldblat, Josef, 2000, Nuclear Disarmament: Obstacles to Banning the Bomb, London: I. B. Tauris

Goldstein, Avery, 1993, “Understanding Nuclear Proliferation: Theoretical Explanation and China's National Experience,” in Zachary S. Davis and Benjamin Frankel, eds., The Proliferation Puzzle: Why Nuclear Weapons Spread (and What Results), London: Frank Cass, pp. 213–255

Goldstein, Steve, 2000, “Bill Would Give Push to ‘Mini-nuke,’” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 16, at http://www.ransac.org/new-web-site/pub/nuclearnews/10.16.00.html

Gordon, Michael R., 2002, “U.S. Nuclear Plan Sees New Targets and New Weapons,” New York Times, March 20

Gormley, Dennis M., 1998, “Hedging Against the Cruise Missile Threat,” Survival vol. 40 no. 1 (Spring), pp. 92–111Google Scholar

Graham, Bradley, 1998a, “Pentagon Bolsters Anti-Hacker Defense,” International Herald Tribune, May 25

Graham, Bradley 1998b, “A Cyberspace Pearl Harbor,” Washington Post Weekly Edition, June 1

Graham, Bradley and Walter Pincus, 2002, “A Shift in Focus,” Washington Post National Weekly Edition, March 18–24

Graham, Bradley and Dana Priest, 1999, “‘No Way to Fight a War’: The Limits of Coalitions,” Washington Post National Weekly Edition, June 14

Grand, Camille, 1998, “A French Nuclear Exception?” Henry L. Stimson Center Occasional Paper No. 38, Washington, DC

Gray, Colin S., 1990, “The Definitions and Assumptions of Deterrence: Questions of Theory and Practice,” Journal of Strategic Studies vol. 13 no. 4, pp. 1–18CrossRef Google Scholar

Gray, Colin S. 1992 “Deterrence in the New Strategic Environment,” Comparative Strategy vol. 11, pp. 247–267CrossRef Google Scholar

Gray, Colin S. 1996, Explorations in Strategy, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press

Gray, Colin S. 1998, “Nuclear Weapons and the Revolution in Military Affairs,” in T. V. Paul, Richard Harknett, and James Wirtz, eds., The Absolute Weapons Revisited: Nuclear Arms and the Emerging International Order, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 99–134

Green, Donald P. and Ian Shapiro, 1994, Pathologies of Rational Choice Theory: A Critique of Applications in Political Science, New Haven: Yale University Press

Grey, Stephen and Steven Haynes, 1997, “Police See Knife Carriers at 60 Feet with E-Ray Spy Cameras,” The Sunday Times (London), May 11

Grigoryev, Sergey, 1999, “Russia's Military Political Trump Card,” Nezavisimoye Voyennoye Obozrenie, December 17–23, in NAPSNet Daily Report, December 21, 1999 available at ftp://ftp.nautilus.org/napsnet/daily reports

Hagerty, Devin T., 1993, “The Power of Suggestion: Opaque Proliferation, Existential Deterrence, and the South Asian Nuclear Arms Competition,” in Zachary S. Davis and Benjamin Frankel, eds., The Proliferation Puzzle: Why Nuclear Weapons Spread (and What Results), London: Frank Cass, pp. 256–283

Hall, Brian, 1998, “Overkill Is Not Dead,” New York Times, March 15

Halpern, Jennifer J. and Robert N. Stern, 1998, eds., Debating Rationality: Nonrational Aspects of Organizational Decision Making, Ithaca: Cornell University Press

Hanson, Martin and Timothy J. Sinclair, 1999, eds., Approaches to Global Governance Theory, Albany: State University of New York Press

Harden, Blaine, 1999, “A Long Struggle that Led Serb Leader to Back Down,” New York Times, June 6

Harvard Nuclear Study Group, 1983, Living With Nuclear Weapons, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

Harvey, Frank P., 1995, “Rational Deterrence Theory Revisited – A Progress Report,” Canadian Journal of Political Science vol. 28 no. 3 (September), pp. 403–436CrossRef Google Scholar

Harvey, Frank P. 1997a, The Future Is Back: Nuclear Rivalry, Deterrence Theory, and Crisis Stability After the Cold War, Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press

Harvey, Frank P. 1997b, “Deterrence and Compellence in Protracted Crises: Methodology and Preliminary Findings,” International Studies Notes vol. 22 no. 1 (Winter), pp. 12–23Google Scholar

Harvey, Frank P. and James, Patrick, 1992, “Nuclear Deterrence Theory: The Record of Aggregate Testing and an Alternative Research Agenda,” Conflict Management and Peace Science vol. 12 no. 1, pp. 17–45CrossRef Google Scholar

Herek, G. M., Janis, I. L., and Huth, Paul, 1987, “Decision Making During International Crises: Is Quality of Process Related to Outcome?” Journal of Conflict Resolution vol. 30, pp. 497–531Google Scholar

Herek, G. M. 1990, “Quality of U.S. Decision Making During the Cuban Missile Crisis: Major Errors in Welch's Reassessment,” Journal of Conflict Resolution vol. 33, pp. 446–459CrossRef Google Scholar

Hermann, Richard, 1987, “Political Diagnosis and Strategic Prescriptions: The Essential Connection,” Journal of Social Issues vol. 43 no. 4, pp. 93–97CrossRef Google Scholar

Heuser, Beatrice, 1997, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Britain, France, and the FRG: Nuclear Strategies and Forces for Europe, 1949–2000, Basingstoke: Macmillan

Hewson, Martin and Timothy J. Sinclair, 1999, eds., Approaches to Global Governance Theory, Albany: State University of New York Press

Hillen, John, 2000, “Armed and Unready: Why Are We Pouring Money into a Military Designed to Fight Wars of the Past?” San Francisco Chronicle, October 15

Hoag, Malcolm W., 1962, “On Stability in Deterrent Races,” in Morton A. Kaplan, ed., The Revolution in World Politics, New York: John Wiley, pp. 338–410

Hoffman, David, 1998, “Downsizing a Mighty Arsenal,” Washington Post, March 16

Hoffman, David 1999a, “When the Nuclear Alarms Went off, He Guessed Right,” International Herald Tribune, February 11

Hoffman, David 1999b, “A Weakened Bear: An Impoverished Russian Military Envies North Atlantic Treaty Organization,” Washington Post Weekly Edition, June 21

Hoffman, David 1999c, “Russia's Nuclear Future Uncertain,” Washington Post, August 31

Holloway, David, 1994, Stalin and the Bomb, New Haven: Yale University Press

Holsti, Ole R., 1989, “Crisis Decision Making,” in Philip E. Tetlock et al., eds., Behavior, Society, and Nuclear War, vol. III, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 8–84Google Scholar

Hoodbhoy, Pervez, 2002, “What, US Worry?” Los Angeles Times, June 9

Hopf, Ted, 1991, “Polarity, the Offense–Defense Balance, and War,” American Political Science Review vol. 85 no. 2, pp. 475–493CrossRef Google Scholar

Hopf, Ted 1994, Peripheral Visions: Deterrence Theory and American Foreign Policy in the Third World, 1965–1990, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press

House Armed Services Committee, 1992, “Potential Threats to American Security in the Post-Cold War Era, Hearings Before the Defense Policy Panel of the Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, One Hundred Second Congress, December 10, 11, 13, 1991,” Washington, DC: Government Publications Office

House of Commons Defence – Fourteenth Report, Session 1999–2000, London, available at http://www.parliament.the-stationery-off…cm19900/cmdefence/347/34702.htm

Howard, Michael, 1991, The Lessons of History, New Haven: Yale University Press

Howlett, Darryl, Cole, Ben, Bailey, Emily, and Simpson, John, 1999, “Surveying the Nuclear Future: Which Way from Here?” Contemporary Security Policy vol. 20 no. 1 (April), pp. 5–41CrossRef Google Scholar

Hundley, Richard O., Robert H. Anderson, John Arquilla, and Roger C. Molander, 1996, eds., Security in Cyberspace, Challenges for Society: Proceedings of an International Conference, Santa Monica: RAND

Huth, Paul, 1988, Extended Deterrence and the Prevention of War, New Haven: Yale University Press

Huth, Paul 1999, “Deterrence and International Conflict: Empirical Findings and Theoretical Debates,” in Nelson W. Polsby, ed., Annual Review of Political Science, vol. II, Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, pp. 25–48CrossRef Google Scholar

Huth, Paul, Gelphi, Christopher, and Bennett, D. Scott, 1993, “The Escalation of Great Power Militarized Disputes: Testing Rational Deterrence Theory and Structural Realism,” American Political Science Review vol. 87 no. 3 (September), pp. 609–623CrossRef Google Scholar

Huth, Paul and Russett, Bruce, 1984, “What Makes Deterrence Work? Cases from 1900 to 1980,” World Politics vol. 36 no. 4 (July), pp. 496–526CrossRef Google Scholar

Huth, Paul 1988, “Deterrence Failures and Crisis Escalation,” International Studies Quarterly vol. 32 no. 1 (March), pp. 47–66CrossRef Google Scholar

Huth, Paul 1990, “Testing Deterrence Theory: Rigor Makes a Difference,” World Politics vol. 42 (July), pp. 466–501CrossRef Google Scholar

Huth, Paul 1993, “General Deterrence Between Enduring Rivals: Testing Three Competing Models,” American Political Science Review vol. 87 no. 1 (March), pp. 61–73CrossRef Google Scholar

Hybel, Alex Roberto, 1993, Power over Rationality: The Bush Administration and the Gulf Crisis, Albany: State University of New York Press

Ignatius, David, 1992 “Madman's Bluff: Why Deterrence Still Works,” Washington Post, May 10

IISS (International Institute for Strategic Studies), 1995–6, “Is There a Revolution in Military Affairs?” Strategic Survey 1995–6, London: Oxford University Press, pp. 20–40

International Institute for Strategic Studies (International Institute for Strategic Studies)1996, “Improvements in Commercial Satellite Imagery,” International Institute for Strategic Studies Strategic Comments vol. 2 no. 10 (December)

International Institute for Strategic Studies (International Institute for Strategic Studies)1998a, “Advanced Military Communication Satellites,” International Institute for Strategic Studies Strategic Comments vol. 4 no. 3 (April)

International Institute for Strategic Studies (International Institute for Strategic Studies)1998b, “The Future of Armored Warfare,” International Institute for Strategic Studies Strategic Comments vol. 4 no. 8 (October)

International Institute for Strategic Studies (International Institute for Strategic Studies)1999a, “Air Power over Kosovo: a Historic Victory?” IISS Strategic Comments vol. 5 no. 7 (September)

International Institute for Strategic Studies (International Institute for Strategic Studies)1999b, “The Future of Urban Warfare,” International Institute for Strategic Studies Strategic Comments vol. 5 no. 2 (March)

Ikenberry, G. John, 2001, After Victory: Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Building of Order After Major Wars, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Inbar, Efraim and Shmuel Sandler, 1995, “The Arab–Israeli Relationship: from Deterrence to Security Regime,” in Efraim Inbar, ed., Regional Security Regimes: Israel and its Neighbors, Albany: State University of New York Press, pp. 273–297

Intriligator, Michael and Brito, Dagobert, 1984, “Can Arms Races lead to the Outbreak of War?” Journal of Conflict Resolution vol. 28 no. 1, pp. 63–84CrossRef Google Scholar

Janis, Irving, 1982, Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascos, 2nd edn., Boston: Houghton-Mifflin

Jervis, Robert, 1976, Perception and Misperception in International Politics, Princeton; Princeton University Press

Jervis, Robert 1979, “Deterrence Theory Reconsidered,” World Politics, vol. 39, pp. 289–324CrossRef Google Scholar

Jervis, Robert 1982–3, “Deterrence and Perception,” International Security vol. 7 no. 3 (Winter), pp. 183–207CrossRef Google Scholar

Jervis, Robert 1984, The Illogic of American Nuclear Strategy, Ithaca: Cornell University Press

Jervis, Robert 1985, “From Balance to Concert,” World Politics vol. 38, pp. 58–79CrossRef Google Scholar

Jervis, Robert 1989a, “Rational Deterrence: Theory and Evidence,” World Politics vol. 41 no. 2 (January), pp. 183–207CrossRef Google Scholar

Jervis, Robert 1989b, The Meaning of the Nuclear Revolution: Statecraft and the Prospect of Armageddon, Ithaca: Cornell University Press

Jervis, Robert 1994, “Leadership, Post-Cold War Politics, and Psychology,” Political Psychology vol. 15 no. 4, pp. 769–777CrossRef Google Scholar

Jervis, Robert 1997, System Effects: Complexity in Political and Social Life, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Jervis, Robert, Richard Ned Lebow, and Janice Gross Stein, 1985, eds., Psychology and Deterrence, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press

Job, Brian L., 1992, The Insecurity Dilemma: National Security of Third World States, Boulder: Lynne Rienner

Joeck, Neil, 1999, “Nuclear Developments in India and Pakistan,” AccessAsia Review vol. 2 no. 2 (July)Google Scholar

Johnson, Rebecca, 1998, “British Perspectives on the Future of Nuclear Weapons,” Henry L. Stimson Center Occasional Paper No. 37, Washington, DC

Johnson, Stuart E. and Martin C. Libicki, 1996, eds., Dominant Battlespace Knowledge, Washington, DC: National Defense University Press

Joseph, Robert G. and John F. Reichart, 1998, “The Case for Nuclear Deterrence Today,” Orbis, Winter, pp. 7–19

Journal of Strategic Studies, special issue, 2000, “Preventing the Use of Weapons of Mass Destruction,” vol. 23 no. 1 (March)

Kahn, Herman, 1961, On Thermonuclear War, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Kahn, Herman 1965, On Escalation: Metaphors and Scenarios, New York: Praeger

Kaiser, David, 2000, American Tragedy: Kennedy, Johnson and the Origins of the Vietnam War, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press

Kaldor, Mary, 1991, “Rethinking Cold War History,” in Ken Booth, ed., New Thinking About Strategy and International Security, London: HarperCollins Academic, pp. 313–331

Kanter, Arnold and Linton F. Brooks, 1994, “Introduction,” in Arnold Kanter and Linton F. Brooks, eds., U.S. Intervention Policy for the Post-Cold War World: New Challenges and Responses, New York: W. W. Norton, pp. 13–41

Karl, David J., 1995, “Enduring Rivalries in the Nuclear Shadow: The Case of the Sino-Soviet Relationship,” paper presented at conference on Deterrence After the Cold War: Theoretical Perspectives and Policy Implications of Enduring Rivalries, Monterey

Karp, Regina, 1992, ed., Security without Nuclear Weapons: Different Perspectives on Non-Nuclear Security, New York: Oxford University Press

Kaufmann, William W., 1954, The Requirements of Deterrence, Center of International Studies Memorandum no. 7, Princeton University

Keaney, Thomas A. and Eliot A. Cohen, 1993, Gulf War Air Power Survey Summary Report, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office

Kegley, Charles W., Jr., 1991, ed., The Long Postwar Peace: Contending Explanations and Projections, New York: HarperCollins

Kelley, Stanley, Jr., 1995, “The Promises and Limitations of Rational Choice Theory,” in Jeffrey Friedman, ed., The Rational Choice Controversy: Economic Models of Politics Reconsidered, New Haven: Yale University Press

Khalilzad, Zalmay M. and John P. White, 1999, eds., The Changing Role of Information in Warfare, Santa Monica: RAND

Khong, Yuen Foon, 1992, Analogies at War, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Kim, Woonsang and Morrow, James D., 1992, “When Do Power Shifts Lead to War?” American Journal of Political Science vol. 36 no. 4 (November), pp. 896–922CrossRef Google Scholar

Kissinger, Henry, 1981, For the Record: Selected Statements 1977–1980, Boston: Little, Brown

Klieman, Aharon and Ariel Levite, 1994, eds., Deterrence in the Middle East: Where Theory and Practice Converge, Boulder: Westview Press

Knorr, Klaus and Patrick Morgan, 1983, Strategic Military Surprise: Incentives and Opportunities, New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books

Kolodziej, Edward, 1987, “The Limits of Deterrence Theory,” Journal of Social Issues vol. 43 no. 4, pp. 123–133CrossRef Google Scholar

Koster, Karel, 2000, “An Uneasy Alliance: North Atlantic Treaty Organization Nuclear Doctrine and the Non-proliferation Treaty,” Disarmament and Diplomacy no. 49 (August), http://www.acronym.org.uk/dd/dd49npt.htm

Krepinevich Andrew, Jr., 1994, “Cavalry to Computer: The Pattern of Military Revolutions,” National Interest no. 37 (Fall), pp. 30–42

Kristensen, Hans M., 1999, “U.S. Nuclear Strategy Reform in the 1990s,” Nautilus Institute for Security and Sustainable Development, Berkeley

Kristensen, Hans M. 2001, “The Matrix of Deterrence,” Nautilus Institute for Security and Sustainable Development, Berkeley

Kugler, Jacek, 1984, “Terror Without Deterrence,” Journal of Conflict Resolution vol. 28, pp. 470–506CrossRef Google Scholar

Kugler, Jacek 1987, “Assessing Stable Deterrence,” in Jacek Kugler and Frank C. Zagare, eds., Exploring the Stability of Deterrence, Boulder: Lynne Rienner, pp. 41–68

Kugler, Jacek 1993 “Political Conflict, War, and Peace,” in Ada W. Finifter, ed., Political Science: The State of the Discipline II, Washington, DC: American Political Science Association, pp. 485–509

Kugler, Jacek and Douglas Lemke, 1996, eds., Parity and War: Evaluations and Extensions of the War Ledger, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press

Kugler, Jacek and A. F. K. Organski, 1989, “The Power Transition: A Retrospective and Prospective Evaluation,” in Manus I. Midlarsky, ed., Handbook of War Studies, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 171–194

Kugler, Jacek, Organski, A. F. K., and Fox, Daniel, 1980, “Deterrence and the Arms Race: The Impotence of Power,” International Security vol. 4, pp. 105–138CrossRef Google Scholar

Kugler, Jacek and Frank C. Zagare, 1987, “Risk, Deterrence, and War,” in Jacek Kugler and Frank C. Zagare, eds., Exploring the Stability of Deterrence, Boulder: Lynne Rienner, pp. 69–89

Kupchan, Charles A. and Clifford, A., 1991, “Concerts, Collective Security, and the Future of Europe,” International Security vol. 16 no. 1 (Summer), pp. 114–161CrossRef Google Scholar

Lakatos, I., 1978, The Methodology of Scientific Research Programs, vol. I, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Lambeth, Benjamin S., 1996, “Technology Trends in Air Warfare,” RAND Reprints Series; reprinted from Alan Stephens, ed., New Era Security: The RAAF in the Next 25 Years, RAAF Air Power Studies Centre

Lambeth, Benjamin S. 1997, “The Technology Revolution in Air Warfare,” Survival vol. 39 no. 1 (Spring), pp. 65–83CrossRef Google Scholar

Lambeth, Benjamin S. 2001, North Atlantic Treaty Organization's Air War for Kosovo: A Strategic and Operational Assessment, Santa Monica: RAND

Langlois, Jean-Pierre P., 1991, “Rational Deterrence and Crisis Stability,” American Journal of Political Science vol. 35 no. 4 (November), pp. 810–832CrossRef Google Scholar

Lariokhin, Taras, 1999, “Beijing Learned How to See the ‘Invisible’ Ones,” The Izvestia, November 30

Larson, Jeffrey A. and Gregory J. Rattray, 1996, Arms Control: Towards the 21st Century, Boulder: Lynne Rienner

Latham, Andrew, 1999, “Re-imagining Warfare: The ‘Revolution in Military Affairs,’” in Craig A. Snyder, ed., Contemporary Security and Strategy, New York: Routledge, pp. 210–235

Lavoy, Peter R., Scott D. Sagan, and James J. Wirtz, 2000, eds., Planning the Unthinkable: How New Powers Will Use Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Weapons, Ithaca: Cornell University Press

Lebovic, James H., 1990, Deadly Dilemmas: Deterrence in U.S. Nuclear Strategy, New York: Columbia University Press

Lebow, Richard Ned, 1981, Between Peace and War: The Nature of International Crises, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press

Lebow, Richard Ned 1984, “Windows of Opportunity: Do States Jump Through Them?” International Security vol. 9 no. 1 (Summer), pp. 147–186CrossRef Google Scholar

Lebow, Richard Ned 1987a, “Conventional or Nuclear Deterrence: Are the Lessons Transferable?” Journal of Social Issues vol. 43 no. 4, pp. 171–191CrossRef Google Scholar

Lebow, Richard Ned 1987b, “Beyond Deterrence: Building Better Theory,” Journal of Social Issues vol. 43 no. 4, pp. 155–169CrossRef Google Scholar

Lebow, Richard Ned 1989, “Deterrence: A Political and Psychological Critique,” in Paul C. Stern et al., eds., Perspectives on Deterrence, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 25–51

Lebow, Richard Ned 1994, “The Long Peace, the End of the Cold War and Theories of International Relations,” International Organization vol. 48 no. 2 (Spring), pp. 249–277CrossRef Google Scholar

Lebow, Richard Ned and Stein, Janice Gross, 1987, “Beyond Deterrence,” Journal of Social Issues vol. 43 no. 4, pp. 5–71CrossRef Google Scholar

Lebow, Richard Ned and Stein, Janice Gross 1989, “Rational Deterrence Theory: I Think, Therefore I Deter,” World Politics vol. 41 no. 2 (January), pp. 208–224CrossRef Google Scholar

Lebow, Richard Ned and Stein, Janice Gross 1990a, “Deterrence: The Elusive Dependent Variable,” World Politics vol. 42 no. 3 (April), pp. 336–369CrossRef Google Scholar

Lebow, Richard Ned and Janice Gross Stein 1990b, “When Does Deterrence Succeed and How Do We Know?” Occasional Papers No. 8, Canadian Institute for International Peace and Security, Ottawa

Lebow, Richard Ned and Janice Gross Stein 1994, We All Lost the Cold War, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Lebow, Richard Ned and Stein, Janice Gross 1995, “Deterrence and the Cold War,” Political Science Quarterly vol. 110 no. 2, pp. 157–181CrossRef Google Scholar

Lepgold, Joseph, 1998, “North Atlantic Treaty Organization's Post-Cold War Collective Action Problem,” International Security vol. 23 no. 1 (Summer), pp. 78–106CrossRef Google Scholar

Levy, Jack, 1982, “Historical Trends in Great Power War, 1495–1975,” International Studies Quarterly vol. 26 no. 2 (June), pp. 278–300CrossRef Google Scholar

Levy, Jack 1989a, “Quantitative Studies of Deterrence Success and Failure,” in Paul C. Stern et al., eds., Perspectives on Deterrence, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 241–243

Levy, Jack 1989b, “The Causes of War: A Review of Theories and Evidence,” in Philip E. Tetlock et al., eds., Behavior, Society and Nuclear War, vol. I, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 209–233Google Scholar

Levy, Jack 1989c, “The Diversionary Theory of War: A Critique,” in Manus I. Midlarsky, ed., Handbook of War Studies, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 259–288

Levy, Jack 1992a, “An Introduction to Prospect Theory,” Political Psychology vol. 13, pp. 171–186Google Scholar

Levy, Jack 1992b, “Prospect Theory and International Relations: Theoretical Applications and Analytical Problems,” Political Psychology vol. 13, pp. 283–310CrossRef Google Scholar

Levy, Jack 1996, “Loss Aversion, Framing, and Bargaining: The Implications of Prospect Theory for International Conflict,” International Political Science Review vol. 17, pp. 179–195CrossRef Google Scholar

Levy, Jack 1997, “Prospect Theory, Rational Choice, and International Relations,” International Studies Quarterly vol. 41, pp. 87–112CrossRef Google Scholar

Levy, Jack 1999, “Loss Aversion, Framing Effects, and International Conflict,” in Manus I. Midlarsky, ed., Handbook of War Studies, vol. II, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 193–221

Lewer, Nick and Steven Schofield, 1997, Non-Lethal Weapons: A Fatal Attraction? London: Zed Books

Lodal, Jan, 2001, The Price of Dominance, New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press

Lubkemeier, Eckhard, 1992, “Building Peace Under the Sword of Damocles,” in Patrick J. Garrity and Steven A. Maaranen, eds., Nuclear Weapons in the Changing World: Perspectives from Europe, Asia, and North America, New York: Plenum Press, pp. 223–239

Lund, Michael S., 1996, Preventing Violent Conflicts: A Strategy for Preventive Diplomacy, Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press

Lynn-Jones, Sean M., 2001, “Does Offense-Defense Theory Have a Future?” Working Paper 12, Research Group in International Security, McGill University, Montreal

Mandelbaum, Michael, 1981, The Nuclear Revolution: International Politics Before and After Hiroshima, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Mann, Jim, 1998, “U.S. Considered '64 Bombing to Keep China Nuclear-Free,” Los Angeles Times, September 27

Mansfield, Edward D. and Snyder, Jack, 1995, “Democratization and the Danger of War,” International Security vol. 20 no. 1 (Summer), pp. 5–38CrossRef Google Scholar

Mansourov, Alexandre, 1995, “Stalin, Mao, Kim, and China's Decision to End the Korean War, September 16–October 15, 1950: New Evidence From the Russian Archives,” Cold War International History Project Bulletin Nos. 6–7 (Winter)

Manwaring, Max G., 2001, ed., Deterrence in the 21st Century, London: Frank Cass

Mares, David R., 1996, “Deterrence Bargaining in the Ecuador–Peru Enduring Rivalry,” Security Studies vol. 6 no. 2 (Winter), pp. 114–147CrossRef Google Scholar

Markoff, John, 1998, “‘Science Fiction’ Power for the PC,” International Herald Tribune, July 16

Markoff, John 1999, “Ushering in a Very Tiny Computer Revolution,” International Herald Tribune, November 2

Martel, William C. and William T. Pendley, 1994, Nuclear Coexistence: Rethinking U.S. Policy to Promote Stability in an Era of Proliferation, Air War College Studies in National Security no. 1, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office

Maxwell, Stephen, 1968, “Rationality in Deterrence,” Adelphi Papers no. 50, London: International Institute for Strategic Studies

May, Ernest and Richard Neustadt, 1986, Learning in Time: The Uses of History for Decision Makers, New York: The Free Press

May, Ernest R. and Philip D. Zelikow, 1997, eds., The Kennedy Tapes: Inside the White House During the Cuban Missile Crisis, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press

May, Michael D. and Roger D. Speed, 1994, “The Role of U.S. Nuclear Weapons in Regional Conflicts,” Stanford: Center for International Security and Arms Control

Mazarr, Michael J., 1997, ed., Nuclear Weapons in a Transformed World: the Challenge of Virtual Nuclear Arsenals, New York: St. Martin's Press

McCullough, David, 1992, Truman, New York: Simon and Schuster

McGuire, Martin, 1965, Secrecy and the Arms Race, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

McGwire, Michael, 1985, “Deterrence: The Problem Not the Solution,” SAIS Review vol. 5 no. 2 (Summer/Fall), pp. 105–124CrossRef Google Scholar

McMaster, H. R., 1997, Dereliction of Duty: Lyndon Johnson, Robert McNamara, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Lies That Led to Vietnam, New York: HarperCollins

Mearsheimer, John J., 1983, Conventional Deterrence, Ithaca: Cornell University Press

Mearsheimer, John J. 1990, “Back to the Future: Instability in Europe After the Cold War,” International Security vol. 15 no. 1 (Summer), pp. 5–56CrossRef Google Scholar

Mearsheimer, John J. 1993, “The Case for a Nuclear Deterrent,” Foreign Affairs vol. 72 no. 3 (Summer), pp. 50–66CrossRef Google Scholar

Mearsheimer, John J. 2001, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, New York: W. W. Norton

Mercer, Jonathan, 1996, Reputation and International Politics, Ithaca: Cornell University Press

Metz, Steven and James Kievit, 1994, “The Revolution in Military Affairs and Conflict Short of War,” Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, July 25

Millburn, George, 1991, “New Technologies: An Overview,” in Desmond Ball and Helen Wilson, eds., New Technology: Implications for Regional and Australian Security, Canberra: Australian National University Strategic and Defense Studies Centre, pp. 2–19

Millot, Marc Dean, 1995, “Facing the Emerging Reality of Regional Nuclear Adversaries,” in Peter L. Hays, Brenda J. Vallance, and Alan R. Van Tassel, eds., American Defense Policy, 7th edn., Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, pp. 453–470

Milner, Helen V., 1997, Interests, Institutions, and Information: Domestic Politics and International Relations, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Mintz, Alex, 1997, “Foreign Policy Decisionmaking: Bridging the Gap Between the Cognitive Psychology and Rational Actor ‘Schools,’” in Nehemia Geva and Alex Mintz, eds., Decisionmaking on War and Peace: The Cognitive– Rational Debate, Boulder: Lynne Rienner, pp. 1–7

Mintz, Alex and Nehemia Geva, 1997, “The Poliheuristic Theory of Foreign Policy Decisionmaking,” in Nehemia Geva and Alex Mintz, eds., Decisionmaking on War and Peace: The Cognitive–Rational Debate, Boulder: Lynne Rienner, pp. 81–101

Mitchell, Russ, 2002, “The Pilot, Gone. The Market, Huge,” New York Times, March 31

Mlyn, Eric, 1995, The State, Society, and Limited Nuclear War, Albany: State University of New York Press

Moaz, Z., 1981, “The Decision to Raid Entebbe: Decision Analysis Applied to Crisis Behavior,” Journal of Conflict Resolution vol. 25, pp. 677–708Google Scholar

Modelski, George and Morgan, Patrick M., 1985, “Understanding Global War,” Journal of Conflict Resolution vol. 28 (Fall), pp. 391–417CrossRef Google Scholar

Modelski, George and William R. Thompson, 1989, “Long Cycles and Global War,” in Manus I. Midlarsky, ed., Handbook of War Studies, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 23–54

Molander, Roger C., Andrew S. Riddile, and Peter A. Wilson, 1996, Strategic Information Warfare: A New Face of War, Santa Monica: RAND

Molander, Roger C. and Peter A. Wilson, 1998, The Day After … In the American Strategic Infrastructure, Santa Monica: RAND

Molander, Roger C., Peter A. Wilson, David Mussington, and Richard Mesic, 1998, Strategic Information Warfare Rising, Santa Monica: RAND

Morehouse, David, 1996, Nonlethal Weapons: War Without Death, Westport, CT: Praeger

Morgan, Patrick M. 1983, Deterrence, a Conceptual Analysis, 2nd edn., Beverly Hills: Sage

Morgan, Patrick M. 1985, “Saving Face for the Sake of Deterrence,” in Robert Jervis et al., eds., Psychology and Deterrence, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, pp. 125–152

Morgan, Patrick M. 2000, “The Impact of the Revolution in Military Affairs,” Journal of Strategic Studies vol. 23 no. 1, pp. 132–162CrossRef Google Scholar

Mueller, John, 1988, “The Essential Irrelevance of Nuclear Weapons …” International Security vol. 13 no. 2 (Fall), pp. 55–79CrossRef Google Scholar

Mueller, John 1989, Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolescence of Major War, New York: Basic Books

Mueller, John 1989–90, “A New Concert of Europe,” Foreign Policy no. 77 (Winter), pp. 3–16

Mueller, John and Mueller, Karl, 2000, “The Methodology of Mass Destruction: Assessing Threats in the New World Order,” Journal of Strategic Studies vol. 23 no. 1, pp. 163–187CrossRef Google Scholar

Murphy, James B., 1995, “Rational Choice Theory as Social Physics,” in Jeffrey Friedman, ed., The Rational Choice Controversy: Economic Models of Politics Reconsidered, New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 155–174

Murray, Williamson, 1997, “Thinking About Revolutions in Military Affairs,” Joint Force Quarterly (Summer), pp. 69–76

Myers, Steven Lee, 1997, “U.S. ‘Updates’ Nuclear War Guidelines,” New York Times, December 8

Myers, Steven Lee 1998, “Pentagon Ready to Shrink Arsenal of Nuclear Bombs,” New York Times, November 23

Myers, Steven Lee 1999, “North Atlantic Treaty Organization Air War May Have Done Less Damage Than Alliance Thought,” International Herald Tribune, June 29

Nalebuff, Barry, 1991, “Rational Deterrence in an Imperfect World,” World Politics vol. 43 (April), pp. 313–335CrossRef Google Scholar

North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 1999, “Press Conference on the Kosovo Strike Assessment,” available via [email protected]

Naylor, Sean D., 2000, “Virtual Deployment: Soldiers Could Train Anywhere,” Defense News, October 23

Neustadt, Richard E. and Ernest R. May, 1986, Thinking in Time: The Uses of History for Decision Making, New York: The Free Press

New York Times, 1997, “When Kennedy Faced Armageddon, and His Own Scornful Generals,” New York Times, October 5

Nitze, Paul H., 1999, “The United States Ought to get Rid of its Nuclear Weapons,” International Herald Tribune, October 29

Nolan, Janne E., 1991, Trappings of Power: Ballistic Missiles in the Third World, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution

Nolan, Janne E. 1999, An Elusive Consensus: Nuclear Weapons and American Security After the Cold War, Washington: Brookings Institution

Nolan, Janne E. 2000, “Preparing for the 2001 Nuclear Posture Review,” Arms Control Today, November, pp. 10–14

Noonam, Michael P. and John Hillen, 2002, “The Coming Transformation of the U.S. Military?” Foreign Policy Research Institute, University of Pennsylvania, E-notes, February 4

Norris, Robert and William Arkin, 2000, eds., “NRDC Nuclear Notebook: Global Nuclear Stockpiles 1945–2000,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, March/April

“Nuclear Posture Review Report,” January 8, 2002, excerpts available at wysiwyg://3/http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/policy/dod/npr.htm

Nunn, Sam and Bruce Blair, 1997, “From Nuclear Deterrence to Mutual Safety,” Washington Post, June 22

Nye, Joseph S. Jr., 1987, “Nuclear Learning and US–Soviet Security Regimes,” International Organization vol. 41 no. 3 (Summer), pp. 371–402CrossRef Google Scholar

Oberdorfer, Don, 1991, “Missed Signals in the Middle East,” Washington Post Magazine, March 19

Office of Technology Assessment (Congress), 1987, New Technology for North Atlantic Treaty Organization: Implementing Follow-On Forces Attack, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office

O'Hanlon, Michael E., 1992, The Art of War in the Age of Peace: U.S. Military Posture for the Post-Cold War World, Westport, CT: Praeger

O'Hanlon, Michael E. 2000, Technological Change and the Future of Warfare, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution

Oliveri, Frank, 1996, “U.S. Air Force Packs Punch in Mini Bombs,” Defense News, January 15–21

Organski, A. F. K. and Jacek Kugler, 1980, The War Ledger, Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Orme, John, 1987, “Deterrence Failures: A Second Look,” International Security vol. 11 no. 4 (Spring), pp. 96–124CrossRef Google Scholar

Orme, John 1992, Deterrence, Reputation and Cold-War Cycles, Basingstoke: Macmillan

Orme, John 1997, “The Utility of Force in a World of Scarcity,” International Security vol. 22 no. 3 (Winter), pp. 138–167CrossRef Google Scholar

Orme, John 1998, “The Good Theory and Bad Practice of Deterrence in Korea,” in Daniel J. Meador, ed., The Korean War in Retrospect: Lessons for the Future, Lanham, MD: University Press of America, pp. 65–87

Otsuka, Ryuichi, 2000, “North Korean Missile Base Detailed: US Firms Give Public Clear View of Taepodong Launch Site,” The Daily Yomiuri, January 9, in NAPSNet Daily Report, January 14, 2000, available at http://www.nautilus.org./napsnet/daily reports

Overy, R. J., 1992, “Air Power and the Origins of Deterrence Theory Before 1939,” Journal of Strategic Studies vol. 15 no. 1 (March), pp. 73–101CrossRef Google Scholar

Owens, Bill with Ed Offley, 2001, Lifting the Fog of War, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux

Pae, Peter, 2002, “Pentagon Flies High on Drones,” Los Angeles Times, January 19

Panofsky, W. K. H., 1999, “Weapons of Mass Destruction and the Physical Heritage of the Cold War: Two Examples of Adverse Impacts of Technology on U.S. Security,” in Charles Hermann, Harold K. Jacobson, and Anne S. Moffat, eds., Violent Conflict in the 21st Century: Causes, Instruments and Mitigation, Chicago: American Academy of Arts and Sciences, pp. 37–65

Parker, Geoffrey, 1988, The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West 1500–1800, New York: Cambridge University Press

Paul, T. V., 1995, “Nuclear Taboo and War Initiation in Regional Conflicts,” Journal of Conflict Resolution vol. 39 no. 4 (December), pp. 696–717CrossRef Google Scholar

Paul, T. V. and John A. Hall, 1999, eds., International Order and the Future of World Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Payne, Keith B., 1996, Deterrence in the Second Nuclear Age, Lexington: University Press of Kentucky

Payne, Keith B. 2001, The Fallacies of Cold War Deterrence and a New Direction, Lexington: University Press of Kentucky

Perkovich, George, 1999, India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation, Berkeley: University of California Press

Perrow, Charles, 1984, Normal Accidents: Living with High-Risk Technologies, New York: Basic Books

Pilat, Joseph F., 1994, “Responding to Proliferation: A Role for Nonlethal Defense?” in Mitchell Reiss and Robert S. Litwak, eds., Nuclear Proliferation After the Cold War, Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, pp. 275–289

Pincus, Walter, 1998a, “Ike Delegated Approval for Nuclear Strike, Files Show,” Los Angeles Times, March 21

Pincus, Walter 1998b, “Whose Finger is on the Nuclear Trigger?” Washington Post Weekly Edition, March 30

Pincus, Walter 1998c, “Paying the Price for Nuclear Arms,” Washington Post National Weekly Edition, July 6

Pincus, Walter and George Lardner, Jr., 1998, “More 1950s Nuclear Secrets Revealed,” International Herald Tribune, September 3

Pomfret, John, 1999, “Rewriting the Rules of War,” Washington Post National Weekly Edition, August 16

Post, Gaines, Jr., 1993, Dilemmas of Appeasement: British Deterrence and Defense, 1934–1937, Ithaca: Cornell University Press

Powaski, Ronald E., 2000, Return to Armageddon: The United States and the Nuclear Arms Race, 1981–1999, New York: Oxford University Press

Powell, Robert, 1990, Nuclear Deterrence Theory: The Search for Credibility, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Powell, Robert 1999, In the Shadow of Power: States and Strategies in International Politics, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Powell, Robert 2002, “National Deterrence Theory and National Missile Defense,” unpublished paper

Priest, Dana, 1999a, “Divided, They Withstood,” Washington Post Weekly, October 4

Priest, Dana 1999b, “Strikes Divided North Atlantic Treaty Organization Chiefs,” International Herald Tribune, September 27

Priest, Dana 1999c, “Serb Targets: North Atlantic Treaty Organization's Conflicting Views,” International Herald Tribune, September 21

Priest, Dana 1999d, “The Battle that Never Was,” Washington Post National Weekly Edition, September 27

Priest, Dana 1999e, “North Atlantic Treaty Organization Secretly Planned an Invasion of Kosovo,” International Herald Tribune, September 20

Questor, George, 1966, Deterrence Before Hiroshima, New York: John Wiley

Questor, George 1986, The Future of Nuclear Deterrence, Lexington, MA: Lexington Books

Questor, George 1989, “Some Thoughts on Deterrence Failures,” in Paul C. Stern et al., eds., Perspectives on Deterrence, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 52–65

Questor, George H. and Utgoff, Victor A., 1994, “No-First-Use and Nonproliferation: Redefining Extended Deterrence,” Washington Quarterly vol. 17 no. 2 (Spring), pp. 103–114Google Scholar

Quinlan, Michael, 1994, “The Future of Nuclear Weapons: Policy for Western Possessors,” International Affairs vol. 70 no. 2, pp. 211–228Google Scholar

Rabin, Yitzhak, 1994, “Deterrence in an Israeli Security Context,” in Aharon Klieman and Ariel Levite, eds., Deterrence in the Middle East: Where Theory and Practice Converge, Boulder: Westview Press, pp. 6–15

Rapoport, Anatol, 1995, The Origins of Violence: Approaches to the Study of Conflict, 2nd edn., New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books

Ray, James Lee, 1989, “The Abolition of Slavery and the End of International War,” International Organization vol. 43 no. 3 (Summer), pp. 405–439CrossRef Google Scholar

Reed, Thomas and Michael O. Wheeler, 1993, “The Role of Nuclear Weapons in the New World Order,” in Future Nuclear Weapons Requirements, Hearing Before the Defense Policy Panel and the Department of Energy Defense Nuclear Facilities Panel of the Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, One Hundred Second Congress (April 8, 1992), Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, pp. 13–72

Reiss, Mitchell, 1995, Bridled Ambition: Why Countries Constrain Their Nuclear Capabilities, Washington, DC, Woodrow Wilson Center Press

Reiter, Dan, 1995, “Exploding the Powder Keg Myth: Preemptive Wars Almost Never Happen,” International Security vol. 20 (Fall), pp. 5–34CrossRef Google Scholar

Reiter, Dan 1996, Crucible of Beliefs: Learning, Alliances, and World Wars, Ithaca: Cornell University Press

“Report: Russia Used Dummy Missiles,” 1998, in NAPSNet Daily Report, November 18, available at ftp://ftp.nautilus.org/napsnet/daily reports

Reuters, 2000, “Military Use of PlayStation 2?” April 15

Revkin, Andrew C., 2001, “U.S. Is Developing Powerful Weapons to Pierce the Deepest Sites,” International Herald Tribune, December 4

Richardson, James L., 1994, Crisis Diplomacy: The Great Powers Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Richter, Paul, 1997, “Clinton Orders Revised Nuclear Weapons Policy,” Los Angeles Times, December 7

Richter, Paul 1998, “China May Seek Satellite Laser, Pentagon Warns,” Los Angeles Times, November 28

Richter, Paul 1999a, “Digging in Useless Against New High-Tech Army Rifle,” Los Angeles Times, December 23

Richter, Paul 1999b, “Air-Only Campaign Offers a False Sense of Security, Some Say,” Los Angeles Times, June 4

Roehrig, Terrence, 1995, “Extended Deterrence in Korea: the U.S. Defense Commitment to South Korea,” unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison

Rogers, Clifford, 1995, ed., The Military Revolution Debate, Boulder: Westview Press

Rosecrance, Richard N., 1986, The Rise of the Trading State: Commerce and Conquest in the Modern World, New York: Basic Books

Rosecrance, Richard N. 1992, “A New Concert of Powers,” Foreign Affairs vol. 71 no. 2 (Spring), pp. 64–82CrossRef Google Scholar

Rotblat, Joseph, 1998, ed., Nuclear Weapons: The Road to Zero, Boulder: Westview Press

Rotblat, Joseph, Jack Steinberger, and Bhalchanda Udgaonker, 1993, eds., A Nuclear-Weapon-Free World. Desirable? Feasible?, Boulder: Westview Press

Russett, Bruce, 1963, “The Calculus of Deterrence,” reprinted in John Mueller, ed., Approaches to Measurement in International Relations, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969, pp. 34–50

Russett, Bruce 1967, “Pearl Harbor: Deterrence Theory and Decision Theory,” Journal of Peace Research vol. 4, pp. 89–105CrossRef Google Scholar

Russett, Bruce 1987, “Further Beyond Deterrence,” Journal of Social Issues vol. 43 no. 4, pp. 99–104CrossRef Google Scholar

Russett, Bruce 1994, “Between General and Immediate Deterrence,” in Aharon Klieman and Ariel Levite, eds., Deterrence in the Middle East: Where Theory and Practice Converge, Boulder: Westview Press, pp. 34–44

Russett, Bruce and Harvey Starr, 1989, World Politics: The Menu For Choice, New York: W. H. Freeman

Sagan, Scott D., 1985, “Nuclear Alerts and Crisis Management,” International Security vol. 9 no. 4 (Spring), pp. 99–139CrossRef Google Scholar

Sagan, Scott D. 1993, The Limits of Safety: Organizations, Accidents, and Nuclear Weapons, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Sagan, Scott D. 1994, “The Perils of Proliferation: Organization Theory, Deterrence Theory, and the Spread of Nuclear Weapons,” International Security vol. 18 no. 4, pp. 66–107CrossRef Google Scholar

Sagan, Scott D. and Kenneth Waltz, 1995, The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: A Debate, New York: W. W. Norton

Sample, Susan, 1998, “Military Buildups, War, and Realpolitik,” Journal of Conflict Resolution vol. 42 no. 2 (April), pp. 156–176

Sanger, David E., 2002a, “Bush Finds that Ambiguity Is Part of Nuclear Deterrence,” New York Times, March 18

Sanger, David E. 2002b, “Bush and Putin to Sign Treaty to Cut Nuclear Warheads,” New York Times, May 13

Sauer, Tom, 1998, Nuclear Arms Control: Nuclear Deterrence in the Post-Cold War Period, New York: St. Martin's Press

Schell, Jonathan, 2000, “The Folly of Arms Control,” Foreign Affairs vol. 79 no. 5, pp. 22–46CrossRef Google Scholar

Schelling, Thomas C., 1960, The Strategy of Conflict, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

Schelling, Thomas C. 1966, Arms and Influence, New Haven: Yale University Press

Schmitt, Eric, 2002, “Improved U.S. Accuracy Claimed in Afghan Air War,” New York Times, April 9

Schmitt, Eric and James Dao, 2001, “Use of Pinpoint Air Power Comes of Age in New War,” New York Times, December 24

Schroeder, Paul, 1972, Austria, Great Britain, and the Crimean War: the Destruction of the European Concert, Ithaca: Cornell University Press

Schroeder, Paul 1989, “Failed Bargain Crises, Deterrence, and the International System,” in Paul C. Stern et al., eds., Perspectives on Deterrence, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 66–83

Schwartz, Stephen I., 1998, “Introduction,” in Stephen I. Schwartz, ed., Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Since 1940, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, pp. 1–31

Senate Armed Services Committee, 1992, “Military Implications of START I and START II, Hearings Before the Committee on Armed Services, United States Senate, One Hundred Second Congress, 2nd Session, July 28 and August 4, 1992,” Washington, DC: Government Printing Office

Senate Armed Services Committee 1994, “Briefing on Results of the Nuclear Posture Review, Hearing Before the Committee on Armed Services, United States Senate, One Hundred Third Congress, Second Session, September 22, 1994,” Washington, DC: Government Printing Office

Shapiro, Jeremy, 1999, “Information and War: Is it a Revolution?” in Zalmay M. Khalilzad and John P. White, eds., The Changing Role of Information in Warfare, Santa Monica: RAND, pp. 113–153

Simon, Herbert A., 1985, “Human Nature in Politics: The Dialogue of Psychology with Political Science,” American Political Science Review vol. 79, pp. 293–304CrossRef Google Scholar

Slocombe, Walter, 1992, “The Future of Nuclear Weapons in a Restructured World,” in Patrick J. Garrity and Steven A. Maaranen, eds., Nuclear Weapons in a Changing World: Perspectives from Europe, Asia, and North America, New York: Plenum Press, pp. 53–64

Smith, R. Jeffrey, 1997, “Clinton Directive Changes Strategy on Nuclear Arms,” Washington Post, December 7

Snyder, Glenn, 1961, Deterrence and Defense: Toward a Theory of National Security, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Snyder, Glenn 1968, “Deterrence and Defense: A Theoretical Introduction,” in Mark Smith and Claude Jones, Jr., eds., American Defense Policy, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press

Snyder, Glenn H. and Paul Diesing, 1977, Conflict Among Nations: Bargaining, Decision Making, and System Structure in International Crises, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Snyder, Jack L., 1984, The Ideology of the Offensive: Military Decision Making and the Disasters of 1914, Ithaca: Cornell University Press

Snyder, Jack L. and Robert Jervis, 1993, eds., Coping with Complexity in the International System, Boulder: Westview Press

Sorokin, Gerald L., 1994, “Alliance Formation and General Deterrence: A Game Theoretic Model and the Case of Israel,” Journal of Conflict Resolution vol. 38 no. 2 (June), pp. 298–325CrossRef Google Scholar

Spezio, Kim Edward, 1995, Beyond Containment: Reconstructing European Security, Boulder: Lynne Rienner

Stein, Arthur A., 1990, Why Nations Cooperate: Circumstances and Choice in International Relations, Ithaca: Cornell University Press

Stein, Janice Gross 1987, “Extended Deterrence in the Middle East: American Strategy Reconsidered,” World Politics vol. 34 no. 3 (April), pp. 382–407Google Scholar

Stein, Janice Gross 1991, “Deterrence and Reassurance,” in Philip E. Tetlock et al., eds., Behavior, Society, and Nuclear War, vol. II, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 9–72Google Scholar

Stein, Janice and Raymond Tanter, 1980, Rational Decision Making: Israel's Security Choices, Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press

Stein, Janice Gross and David A. Welch, 1997, “Rational and Psychological Approaches to the Study of International Conflict: Comparative Strengths and Weaknesses,” in Nehemia Geva and Alex Mintz, eds., Decisionmaking on War and Peace, Boulder: Lynne Rienner, pp. 51–77

Steinbruner, John, 1974, The Cybernetic Theory of Decision: New Dimensions of Political Analysis, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Steinbruner, John 1983, “Beyond Rational Deterrence: The Struggle for New Conceptions,” in Klaus Knorr, ed., Power, Strategy, and Security, Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 103–125

Stern, Paul C., Robert Axelrod, Robert Jervis, and Roy Radner, 1989a, eds., Perspectives on Deterrence, New York: Oxford University Press

Stern, Paul C. 1989b, “Conclusions,” in Paul C. Stern et al., eds., Perspectives on Deterrence, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 294–325

Sullivan, Brian R., 1996, “The Reshaping of the US Armed Forces: Present and Future Implications for Northeast Asia,” Korean Journal of Defense Analysis vol. 8 no. 1 (Summer), pp. 129–152CrossRef Google Scholar

Sundarji, K., 1996, “India's Nuclear Weapons Policy,” in John Gjelstad and Olav Njolstad, eds., Nuclear Rivalry and International Order, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 173–195

Tammen, Ronald L., Jacek Kugler, Douglas Lemke, Carole Alsharbati and Brian Efrid, 2000, eds., Power Transitions: Strategies for the 21st Century, New York: Chatham House

Tarr, David W., 1991, Nuclear Deterrence and International Security: Alternative Security Regimes, New York: Longman

Taylor, Michael, 1995, “When Rationality Fails,” in Jeffrey Friedman, ed., The Rational Choice Controversy: Economic Models of Politics Reconsidered, New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 223–234

Tellis, Ashley J., 2001, India's Emerging Nuclear Posture: Between Recessed Deterrent and Ready Arsenal, Santa Monica: RAND

Tetlock, Philip E., 1987, “Testing Deterrence Theory: Some Conceptual and Methodological Issues,” Journal of Social Issues vol. 43 no. 4, pp. 85–91CrossRef Google Scholar

Tetlock, Philip E., McGuire, Charles B., and Mitchell, Gregory, 1991, “Psychological Perspectives on Nuclear Deterrence,” Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 42, pp. 239–276CrossRef Google Scholar

t'Hart, Paul, Eric K. Stern, and Bengt Sundelius, 1997, eds., Beyond Groupthink: Political Group Dynamics and Foreign Policy-Making, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press

Thee, Marek, 1986, Military Technology, Military Strategy and the Arms Race, London: Croom Helm

Thee, Marek 1991, Whatever Happened to the Peace Dividend? The Post-Cold War Armaments Momentum, Nottingham: Russell Press

Toland, John, 1970, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, New York: Random House

Trachtenberg, Marc, 1985, “The Influence of Nuclear Weapons in the Cuban Missile Crisis,” International Security vol. 10 no. 1 (Summer), pp. 137–163CrossRef Google Scholar

Tucker, Robert W., 1985, The Nuclear Debate: Deterrence and the Lapse of Faith, New York: Holmes and Meier

Turner, Stansfield, 1997, Caging the Nuclear Genie: An American Challenge for Global Security, Boulder: Westview Press

Twigge, Stephen and Len Scott, 2000, Planning Armageddon: Britain, the United States and the Command of Western Nuclear Forces 1945–1964, Amsterdam: Harwood Academic

Ullman, Harlan K., 1995, In Irons: US Military Might in the New Century, London: Duckworth and RUSI

US Information Agency, 1998, “State Department Noon Briefing,” USIA Transcript, Washington, DC, March 16

Utgoff, Victor A., 1993a, “Future Needs for US Contingency Forces,” in Barry M. Blechman et al., The American Military in the Twenty-First Century, New York: St. Martin's Press, pp. 267–342

Utgoff, Victor A. 1993b, “Military Technology: Options for the Future,” in Barry M. Blechman et al., The American Military in the Twenty-First Century, New York: St. Martin's Press, pp. 143–195

Van Benthem van den Bergh, Godfried, 1992, The Nuclear Revolution and the End of the Cold War, Basingstoke: Macmillan

Van Benthem van den Bergh, Godfried 1996, “The Nuclear Revolution into its Second Phase,” in John Gjelstad and Olav Njolstad, eds., Nuclear Rivalry and International Order, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 22–39

van Crevald, Martin, 1989, Technology and War: From 2000 BC to the Present, New York: The Free Press

van Crevald, Martin 1993, Nuclear Proliferation and the Future of Conflict, New York: The Free Press

Vartabedian, Ralph, 1995, “The Laser: Air Force's Top Gun,” Los Angeles Times, November 30

Vasquez, John, 1991, “The Deterrence Myth: Nuclear Weapons and the Prevention of Nuclear War,” in Charles A. Kegley, Jr., ed., The Long Postwar Peace: Contending Explanations and Projections, New York: HarperCollins, pp. 205–223

Vertzberger, Yaacov, Y. I., 1998, Risk Taking and Decision-Making: Foreign Military Intervention Decisions, Stanford: Stanford University Press

Riekhoff, Harald, 1987, “Methodological and Historical Problems in Determining Deterrence Success,” Journal of Social Issues vol. 43 no. 4, pp. 79–84CrossRef Google Scholar

Wagner, R. Harrison, 1989, “Uncertainty, Rational Learning, and Bargaining in the Cuban Missile Crisis,” in Peter C. Ordeshook, ed., Models of Strategic Choice in Politics, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 177–205

Wagner, R. Harrison 1994, “Peace, War, and the Balance of Power,” American Political Science Review vol. 88 no. 3 (September), pp. 593–607CrossRef Google Scholar

Wald, Mathew, 1998, “Air-Navigation System: A Jamming Liability?” International Herald Tribune, November 24

Wallensteen, Peter, 2002, Understanding Conflict Resolution: War, Peace and the Global System, London: Sage

Wallensteen, Peter and Sollenberg, Margaretta, 1996, “The End of International War? Armed Conflict 1989–1995,” Journal of Peace Research vol. 33 no. 3, pp. 353–370CrossRef Google Scholar

Wallensteen, Peter 1997, “Armed Conflicts, Conflict Termination, and Peace Agreements, 1989–1996, “Journal of Peace Research vol. 35 no. 3, pp. 339–358CrossRef Google Scholar

Walt, Stephen M., 1996, Revolution and War, Ithaca: Cornell University Press

Walt, Stephen M. 2000, “Rigor or Rigor Mortis: Rational Choice and Security Studies,” in Michael Brown et al., Rational Choice and Security Studies: Stephen Walt and His Critics, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 1–44

Waltz, Kenneth N., 1979, Theory of International Politics, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley

Waltz, Kenneth N. 1995, “More May Be Better,” in Scott D. Sagan and Kenneth N. Waltz, The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: A Debate, New York: W. W. Norton, pp. 1–45

Ware, Willis H., 1998, The Cyber-Posture of the National Information Infrastructure, Santa Monica: RAND

Watman, Kenneth and Dean Wilkening, 1995, U.S. Regional Deterrence Strategies, Santa Monica: RAND

Weber, Steve, 1992, “Security After the Revolutions of 1989 and 1991: The Future with Nuclear Weapons,” in Patrick J. Garrity and Steven A. Maaranen, eds., Nuclear Weapons in a Changing World: Perspectives from Europe, Asia, and North America, New York: Plenum Press, pp. 199–221

Weede, Erich, 1983, “Extended Deterrence by Superpower Alliance,” Journal of Conflict Resolution vol. 27, pp. 231–254CrossRef Google Scholar

Welch, D. A., 1989, “Crisis Decision Making Reconsidered,” Journal of Conflict Resolution vol. 33, pp. 430–445CrossRef Google Scholar

White, Paul C., Robert E. Pendley, and Patrick J. Garrity, 1992, “Thinking About No Nuclear Forces: Technical and Strategic Constraints on Transitions and End-Points,” in Regine Cowen Karp, ed., Security Without Nuclear Wepons? Different Perspectives on Non-Nuclear Security, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 103–127

White, Ralph K., 1987, “Underestimating and Overestimating Others' Fear,” Journal of Social Issues vol. 43 no. 4, pp. 105–109CrossRef Google Scholar

Whiting, Alan C., 1975, The Chinese Calculus of Deterrence: India and Indochina, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press

Wiener, Malcolm H., 1995, Nonlethal Technologies: Military Options and Implications, New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press

Wilkening, Dean and Kenneth Watman, 1995, Nuclear Deterrence in a Regional Context, Santa Monica: RAND

Williams, Carol J., 2000, “North Atlantic Treaty Organization's Effort in Kosovo Lambasted,” Los Angeles Times, February 6

Williams, Michael C., 1992, “Rethinking the ‘Logic’ of Deterrence,” Alternatives vol. 17, pp. 67–93CrossRef Google Scholar

Williams, Phil, 1992, “Nuclear Weapons, European Security, and Regional Deterrence,” in Patrick J. Garrity and Steven A. Maaranen, eds., Nuclear Weapons in a Changing World: Perspectives from Europe, Asia, and North America, New York: Plenum Press, pp. 91–110

Willmer, Stephen J., 1998, “British Nuclear Disarmament and Restrictions in the 1990s,” in Barry R. Schneider and William L. Dowdy, eds., Pulling Back from the Nuclear Brink: Reducing and Countering Nuclear Threats, London: Frank Cass, pp. 214–217

Windle, David, 1997, “Missile Puts Pilots Clear of Danger,” The Sunday Times (London), January 12

Winters, Francis X., 1997, The Year of the Hare, Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press

Wohlforth, William, 1999, “A Certain Idea of Science: How International Relations Theory Avoids the New Cold War History,” Journal of Cold War Studies vol. 1 no. 2 (Spring), pp. 39–60CrossRef Google Scholar

Wohlstetter, Albert, 1959, “The Delicate Balance of Terror,” Foreign Affairs vol. 37 no. 2 (January), pp. 211–234CrossRef Google Scholar

Wolf, Barry, 1991, “When the Weak Attack the Strong: Failures of Deterrence,” Rand note 3261-A, Santa Monica

Wolfers, Arnold, 1952, “‘National Security’ as an Ambiguous Symbol,” Political Science Quarterly vol. 67 (December), pp. 481–502CrossRef Google Scholar

Wright, Robert, 1999, “Private Eyes,” New York Times Magazine, September 5

Wu, Samuel, 1990, “To Attack or Not to Attack: A Theory and Empirical Assessment of Extended Immediate Deterrence,” Journal of Conflict Resolution vol. 34 no. 3 (September), pp. 531–552CrossRef Google Scholar

Zagare, Frank Z., 1987, The Dynamics of Deterrence, Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Zagare, Frank Z. 1996, “Classical Deterrence Theory: A Critical Assessment,” International Interactions vol. 24 no. 4, pp. 365–387CrossRef Google Scholar

Zagare, Frank Z. 2000, “All Mortis, No Rigor,” in Michael Brown et al., eds., Rational Choice and Security Studies: Stephen Walt and His Critics, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 96–103

Zagare, Frank C. and Kilgour, D. Marc, 1993a, “Asymmetric Deterrence,” International Studies Quarterly vol. 37, pp. 1–27CrossRef Google Scholar

Zagare, Frank C. 1993b, “Modeling ‘Massive Retaliation,’” Conflict Management and Peace Science vol. 13 no. 1, pp. 61–86CrossRef Google Scholar

Zagare, Frank C. 2000, Perfect Deterrence, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Zakaria, Fareed, 1998, From Wealth to Power: The Unusual Origins of America's World Role, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Zartman, I. William, 1989, Ripe For Resolution, 2nd edn., New York: Oxford University Press

Zey, Mary, 1992, ed., Decision Making: Alternatives to Rational Choice Models, Newbury Park, CA: Sage

Zhang, Shu Guang, 1992, Deterrence and Strategic Culture: Chinese–American Confrontations, 1949–1958, Ithaca: Cornell University Press

Zimmerman, Peter D., 1994, “Proliferation: Bronze Medal Technology Is Enough,” Orbis vol. 38 no. 1, pp. 67–95CrossRef Google Scholar