Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T14:23:18.645Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

References

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 May 2024

Kim L. Fridkin  and
Patrick J. Kenney
Kim L. Fridkin
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Patrick J. Kenney
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Get access

Summary

A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Choices in a Chaotic Campaign
Understanding Citizens' Decisions in the 2020 Election
 , pp. 225 - 252
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2024

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abramowitz, Alan I., and Saunders, Kyle L.. 2008. Is polarization a myth? The Journal of Politics, 70(2): 542–555.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abramowitz, Alan I., and Stone, Walter J.. 2006. The Bush effect: Polarization, turnout, and activism in the 2004 presidential election. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 36(2): 141–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abramson, Alana. 2016. How Donald Trump perpetuated the ‘Birther’ movement for years. ABC News. [online]. September 16. abcnews.go.com/Politics/donald-trump-perpetuated-birther-movement-years/story?id=42138176Google Scholar
Aday, Sean. 2010. Chasing the bad news: An analysis of 2005 Iraq and Afghanistan war coverage on NBC and Fox News Channel. Journal of Communication, 60(1): 144–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adorno, Theodor. W., Frenkel-Brunswik, Else, Levinson, Daniel, and Sanford, Nevitt. 1950. The authoritarian personality. New York: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
Aggarwal, Minali, Allen, Jennifer, Coppock, Alexander, et al. 2023. A 2 million-person, campaign-wide field experiment shows how digital advertising affects voter turnout. Nature Human Behaviour, 7(3): 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Algara, Carlos, Amlani, Sharif, Collitt, Samuel, Hale, Isaac, and Kazemian, Sara. 2022. Nail in the coffin or lifeline? Evaluating the electoral impact of COVID-19 on President Trump in the 2020 election. Political Behavior, 1–29. doi.org/10.1007/s11109-022-09826-xGoogle ScholarPubMed
Altemeyer, Bob. 1981. Right-wing authoritarianism. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press.Google Scholar
Alter, Charlotte. 2020. Inside Joe Biden campaign’s plan to get out the vote. Time Magazine. [online]. time.com/5906237/inside-joe-biden-campaigns-plan-to-get-out-the-vote-online/Google Scholar
Alvarez, R. Michael. 1998. Information and elections. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Alvarez, R. Michael, and Glasgow, Garrett. 1997. Do voters learn from presidential election campaigns. Social Science Working Paper 1022. [online]. core.ac.uk/download/pdf/216273208.pdfGoogle Scholar
Alvarez, R. Michael, Hall, Thad E., Levin, Ines, and Stewart, Charles III. 2011. Voter opinions about election reform: Do they support making voting more convenient? Election Law Journal, 10(2): 73–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alvarez, R. Michael, Hall, Thad E., and Llewellyn, Morgan. 2008. Are Americans confident their ballots are counted? The Journal of Politics, 70(3): 754–766.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amaya, Ashley, Hatley, Nick, and Lau, Arnold. 2021. Measuring the risks of panel conditioning in survey research. PEW Research Center. [online]. www.pewresearch.org/methods/2021/06/09/measuring-the-risks-of-panel-conditioning-in-survey-research/Google Scholar
Amlani, Sharif, and Collitt, Samuel. 2022. The impact of vote-by-mail policy on turnout and vote share in the 2020 election. Election Law Journal: Rules, Politics, and Policy, 21(2): 135–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ansolabehere, Stephen, and Iyengar, Shanto. 1999. Going negative: How political advertisements shrink and polarize the electorate. New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Ansolabehere, Stephen, Iyengar, Shanto, Simon, Adam, and Valentino, Nicholas. 1994. Does attack advertising demobilize the electorate? American Political Science Review, 88(4): 829–838.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ansolabehere, Stephen, and Persily, Nathaniel. 2007. Vote fraud in the eye of the beholder: The role of public opinion in the challenge to voter identification requirements. Harvard Law Review, 121(7): 1737–1774.Google Scholar
Arceneaux, Kevin. 2007. I’m asking for your support: The effects of personally delivered campaign messages on voting decisions and opinion formation. Quarterly Journal of Political Science, 2(1): 43–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arceneaux, Kevin. 2010. The benefits of experimental methods for the study of campaign effects. Political Communication, 27(2): 199–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arceneaux, Kevin, Gravelle, Timothy B., Osmundsen, Mathias, et al. 2021. Some people just want to watch the world burn: The prevalence, psychology, and politics of the “Need for Chaos.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 376(1822): 20200147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arceneaux, Kevin, and Johnson, Martin. 2013. Changing minds or changing channels? Partisan news in an age of choice. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arceneaux, Kevin, and Truex, Rory. 2022. Donald Trump and the lie. Perspectives on Politics, 21(3): 1–17.Google Scholar
Aschwanden, Damaris, Strickhouser, Jason E., Sesker, Amanda A., Lee, Ji Hyun, Luchetti, Martina, Stephan, Yannick, Sutin, Angelina R., and Terracciano, Antonio. 2021. Psychological and behavioural responses to coronavirus disease 2019: The role of personality. European Journal of Personality, 35(1): 51–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asher, Abe. 2022. US police have already killed over 700 people in 2022, on track to break record. The Independent. [online]. 4 August. www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/police-killing-record-2022-b2137757.htmlGoogle Scholar
Ashok, Vivekinan, Feder, Daniel, McGrath, Mary, and Hersh, Eitan. 2016. The dynamic election: Patterns of early voting across time, state, party, and age. Election Law Journal, 15(2): 115–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkeson, Lonna Rae, Alvarez, R. Michael, and Hall, Thad E.. 2015. Voter confidence: How to measure it and how it differs from government support. Election Law Journal: Rules, Politics, and Policy, 14(3): 207–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkeson, Lonna Rae, Hansen, Wendy L., Oliver, Maggie Toulouse, Maestas, Cherie D., and Wiemer, Eric C.. 2022. Should I vote-by-mail or in person? The impact of COVID-19 risk factors and partisanship on vote mode decisions in the 2020 presidential election. Plos one, 17(9): e0274357.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atkeson, Lonna Rae, and Saunders, Kyle L.. 2007. The effect of election administration on voter confidence: A local matter? PS: Political Science & Politics, 40(04): 655–660.Google Scholar
Baker, Peter, and Haberman, Maggie. 2020a. Trump tests positive for the coronavirus. The New York Times. [online]. 2 October. www.nytimes.com/2020/10/02/us/politics/trump-covid.html.Google Scholar
Baker, Peter, and Haberman, Maggie. 2020b. Trump fans strife as unrest roils the U.S. The New York Times. [online]. 31 August. www.nytimes.com/2020/08/31/us/politics/trump-kenosha.htmlGoogle Scholar
Ball, Molly, and Alter, Charlotte. 2020. The first 2020 presidential debate was nasty, brutish and long. Time Magazine. [online]. 1 October. time.com/5894588/presidential-debate-analysis-chaos/Google Scholar
Banda, Kevin K., and Cassese, Erin C.. 2022. Hostile sexism, racial resentment, and political mobilization. Political Behavior, 44: 1317–1335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barbaranelli, Claudio, Caprara, Gian Vittorio, Vecchione, Michele, and Fraley, Chris R.. 2007. Voters’ personality traits in presidential elections. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(7): 1199–1208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnhart, Brent. 2021. Everything you need to know about social media algorithms. Sprout Social. [online]. 26 March. sproutsocial.com/insights/social-media-algorithms/Google Scholar
Barrabi, Thomas. 2020. Trump says he’s ‘medication free,’ details COVID-19 recovery in first on-camera interview since diagnosis. Fox News. www.foxnews.com/politics/trump-medication-free-covid-19-recovery-tucker-carlsonGoogle Scholar
Barroso, Amanda. 2020. Key takeaways on Americans’ views on gender equality a century after U.S. women gained the right to vote. Pew Research Center. [online]. 13 August. www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/08/13/key-takeaways-on-americans-views-on-gender-equality-a-century-after-u-s-women-gained-the-right-to-vote/Google Scholar
Barroso, Amanda, and Brown, Anna. 2021. Gender pay gap in U.S. held steady in 2020. PEW Research Center. [online]. 25 May. www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/05/25/gender-pay-gap-facts/Google Scholar
Barry, Dan, and Frenkel, Sheera. 2021. Be There. Will Be Wild! Trump all but circled the date. The New York Times. [online]. 7 January. www.nytimes.com/2021/01/06/us/politics/capitol-mob-trump-supporters.htmlGoogle Scholar
Barsky, Allan E., and Wood, Lorinda. 2005. Conflict avoidance in a university context. Higher Education Research & Development, 24(3): 249–264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartels, Larry M. 2000. Partisanship and voting behavior, 1952–1996. American Journal of Political Science, 44: 35–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartels, Larry M. 2018. Partisanship in the Trump era. The Journal of Politics, 80(4): 1483–1494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BBC News. 2016. US presidential debate: Trump won’t commit to accept election result. 2016. BBC News. [online]. 20 October. www.bbc.com/news/election-us-2016-37706499Google Scholar
Beason, Tyrone. 2020. Trump and Biden couldn’t be more different on the complicated issue of race. Los Angeles Times. [online]. 17 August, updated 3 October. www.latimes.com/politics/story/2020-08-06/trump-biden-race-policyGoogle Scholar
Beaulieu, Emily. 2014. From voter ID to party ID: How political parties affect perceptions of election fraud in the U.S. Electoral Studies, 35: 24–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Becker, Julia C., and Wright, Stephen C.. 2011. Yet another dark side of chivalry: Benevolent sexism undermines and hostile sexism motivates collective action for social change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(1): 62–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belli, Robert F., Traugott, Michael W., and Beckmann, Matthew N.. 2001. What leads to voting overreports? Contrasts of overreporters to validated voters and admitted nonvoters in the American National Election Studies. Journal of Official Statistics, 17(4): 479–498.Google Scholar
Bennett, Anthony J. 2013. The race for the White House from Reagan to Clinton. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benoit, William L., Blaney, Joseph R., and Pier, Penni M.. 1998. Campaign ’96: A functional analysis of acclaiming, attacking, and defending. Westport, CT: Praeger.Google Scholar
Benoit, William L., and Hansen, Glenn J.. 2004. Presidential debate watching, issue knowledge, character evaluation, and vote choice. Human Communication Research, 30(1): 121–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berelson, Bernard R., Lazarsfeld, Paul F., and McPhee, William N.. 1954. Voting: A study of opinion formation in a presidential campaign. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Berent, Matthew K., Krosnick, Jon A., and Lupia, Arthur. 2016. Measuring voter registration and turnout in surveys. Public Opinion Quarterly, 80(3): 597–621.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergan, Daniel E., Gerber, Alan S., Green, Donald P., and Panagopoulos, Costas. 2005. Grassroots mobilization and voter turnout in 2004. Public Opinion Quarterly, 69(5): 760–777.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berinsky, Adam J. 2012. Rumors, truths, and reality: A study of political misinformation. Unpublished manuscript. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA. citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.945.4298&rep=rep1&type=pdfGoogle Scholar
Berlinski, Nicolas, Doyle, Margaret, Guess, Andrew M., Levy, Gabrielle, Lyons, Benjamin, Montgomery, Jacob M., Nyhan, Brendan, and Reifler, Jason. 2023. The effects of unsubstantiated claims of voter fraud on confidence in elections. Journal of Experimental Political Science, 10(1): 34–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berman, John. 2020. Donald Trump visits Kenosha, Wisconsin; politics of fear; convalescent plasma not recommended to treat COVID-19; New White House Adviser pushing controversial pandemic response. Aired 8-9p ET. Anderson Cooper 360 [CNN] (USA). 1 September. Available from NewsBank: Access World News: infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/documentview?p=AWNB&docref=news/17D43177DC0D6968Google Scholar
Bernheim, Bert Douglas, Buchmann, Nina, Freitas-Groff, Zach, and Otero, Sebastián 2020. The effects of large group meetings on the spread of COVID-19: The case of Trump rallies. Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research (SIEPR) Working Paper 20-043. siepr.stanford.edu/research/publications/effects-large-group-meetingsspread-covid-19-case-trump-ralliesCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bierwiaczonek, Kinga, Gundersen, Aleksander B., and Kunst, Jonas R.. 2022. The role of conspiracy beliefs for COVID-19 health responses: A meta-analysis. Current Opinion in Psychology, 46: 1–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bjarnøe, Camilla, de Vreese, Claes Holger, and Albæk, Erik. 2020. The effect of being conflict non-avoidant: Linking conflict framing and political participation. West European Politics, 43(1): 102–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blais, André, and St‐Vincent, Simon Labbé. 2011. Personality traits, political attitudes and the propensity to vote. European Journal of Political Research, 50(3): 395–417CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blais, André, and Achen, Christopher H.. 2018. Civic duty and voter turnout. Political Behavior, 41(2): 473–497.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blitzer, Wolf. 2020. Trump-Biden chaotic presidential debate analysis. Aired 10:30-11p ET. CNN Live Event Special [CNN] (USA). 29 September. Available from NewsBank: Access World News: infoweb-newsbank-com.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/apps/news/document-view?p=AWNB&docref=news/17DD6C112D378FC0Google Scholar
Bobo, Lawrence. 1988. Attitudes toward the Black political movement: Trends, meaning, and effects on racial policy preferences. Social Psychology Quarterly, 51(4): 287–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boburg, Shawn. 2020. Trump campaign flouted agreement to follow health guidelines at rally, documents show. Washington Post. [online]. 24 October. www.washingtonpost.com/investigations/trump-duluth-rally-covid-guidelines/2020/10/23/10c1367c-1317-11eb-82af-864652063d61_story.htmlGoogle Scholar
Bogel-Burroughs, Nicholas. 2021. Prosecutors say Derek Chauvin knelt on George Floyd for 9 minutes 29 seconds, longer than initially reported. New York Times. [online]. 30 March. www.nytimes.com/2021/03/30/us/derek-chauvin-george-floyd-kneel-9-minutes-29-seconds.htmlGoogle Scholar
Boudreau, Cheryl, MacKenzie, Scott A., and Simmons, Daniel J.. 2022. Police violence and public opinion after George Floyd: How the Black Lives Matter movement and endorsements affect support for reforms. Political Research Quarterly, 75(2): 497–511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowler, Shaun, Brunell, Thomas, Donovan, Todd, and Gronke, Paul. 2015. Election administration and perceptions of fair elections. Electoral Studies, 38: 1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brader, Ted. 2005. Striking a responsive chord: How political ads motivate and persuade voters by appealing to emotions. American Journal of Political Science, 49(2): 388–405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brady, Henry E., Johnston, Richard, and Sides, John. 2006. The study of political campaigns. In Brady, Henry E. and Johnston, Richard (eds.) Capturing campaign effects. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1–26.Google Scholar
Brady, Henry E., Verba, Sydney, and Schlozman, Kay Lehman. 1995. Beyond SES: A resource model of political participation. The American Political Science Review, 89(2): 271–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brennan Center for Justice. 2020. The myth of voter fraud. Brennan Center. [online]. www.brennancenter.org/issues/ensure-every-american-can-vote/vote-suppression/myth-voter-fraud?fbclid=IwAR268babunGm_5OmLwGMgrKML0yui2rC_mMqsG705maoXvm6TV2kpRoOpacGoogle Scholar
Bresnahan, Mary Jiang, Donohue, William A., Shearman, Sachiyo M., and Guan, Xiaowen. 2009. Research note: Two measures of conflict orientation. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 26(3): 365–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brooks, Deborah J. 2006. The resilient voter: Moving toward closure in the debate over negative campaigning and turnout. The Journal of Politics, 68(3): 684–696.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Ben, and Benedict, Wm Reed. 2002. Perceptions of the police: Past findings, methodological issues, conceptual issues and policy implications. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 25(3): 543–580.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brownstein, Ronald. 2020. The rage unifying boomers and Gen Z. The Atlantic. [online]. 18 June. www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2020/06/todays-protest-movements-are-as-big-as-the-1960s/613207/Google Scholar
Bruder, Martin, Haffke, Peter, Neave, Nick, Nouripanah, Nina, and Imhoff, Roland. 2013. Measuring individual differences in generic beliefs in conspiracy theories across cultures: Conspiracy mentality questionnaire. Frontiers in Psychology, 4(225): 1–15CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buchanan, Larry, Bui, Quoctrung, and Patel, Jugal K.. 2020. Black Lives Matter may be the largest movement in U.S. history. New York Times. [online]. 3 July. www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/07/03/us/george-floyd-protests-crowd-size.htmlGoogle Scholar
Bullock, John G. 2009. Partisan bias and the Bayesian ideal in the study of public opinion. The Journal of Politics, 71(3): 1109–1124CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bullock III, Charles S., Hood III, M. V., and Clark, Richard. 2005. Punch cards, Jim Crow, and Al Gore: Explaining voter trust in the electoral system in Georgia, 2000. State Politics & Policy Quarterly, 5(3): 283–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bump, Philip. 2020. Reliable polls show that Biden won the debate – So those aren’t what Trump’s allies are highlighting. Washington Post. [online]. 30 September. www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/09/30/reliable-polls-show-that-biden-won-debate-so-those-arent-what-trumps-allies-are-highlighting/Google Scholar
Burden, Barry C., and Wichowsky, Amber. 2014 Economic discontent as a mobilizer: Unemployment and voter turnout. The Journal of Politics, 76(4): 887–898.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burns, Alexander. 2020. Joe Biden had close ties with Police Leaders. Will they help him now? New York Times. [online]. 24 October. www.nytimes.com/2020/10/24/us/politics/joe-biden-police.htmlGoogle Scholar
Burns, Alexander, and Glueck, Katie. 2020. Kamala Harris is Biden’s choice for Vice President. New York Times. [online]. 11 August. www.nytimes.com/2020/08/11/us/politics/kamala-harris-vp-biden.htmlGoogle Scholar
Butler, J. Corey. 2013. Authoritarianism and fear responses to pictures: The role of social differences. International Journal of Psychology, 48(1): 18–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cacioppo, John T., and Petty, Richard E.. 1982. The need for cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(1): 116–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camobreco, John F., and He, Zhaochen. 2022. The party-line pandemic: A closer look at the Partisan response to COVID-19. PS: Political Science & Politics, 55(1): 13–21.Google Scholar
Campbell, Angus, Converse, Philip E., Miller, Warren E., and Stokes, Donald E.. 1960. The American voter. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.Google Scholar
Campbell, James E. 2005. Why Bush won the presidential election of 2004: Incumbency, ideology, terrorism and turnout. Political Science Quarterly, 120(2): 219–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, James E., 2008. The American campaign: US presidential campaigns and the national vote. College Station: Texas A&M University Press.Google Scholar
Campbell, W. Joseph. 2010. Getting it wrong: Ten of the greatest misreported stories in American journalism. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Caprara, Gian Vittorio, and Vecchione, Michele. 2013. Personality approaches to political behavior. In Huddy, Leonie, Sears, David O., and Levy, Jack S. (eds.) The Oxford handbook of political psychology. New York: Oxford University Press, 23–58.Google Scholar
Carlson, Tucker. 2020a. Coronavirus cover-up in Nashville. Tucker Carlson Tonight [Fox News] (USA). 17 September. Available from NewsBank: Access World News: infoweb-newsbank-com.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/apps/news/document-view?p=AWNB&docref=news/17D923A9B2722B58Google Scholar
Carlson, Tucker. 2020b. Political violence is the greatest threat we face. Tucker Carlson Tonight [FOX News] (USA). 1 September. Available from NewsBank: Access World News: infoweb-newsbank-com.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/apps/news/document-view?p=AWNB&docref=news/17D3DCCCDF6BEE18Google Scholar
Carreras, Miguel. 2018. Why no gender gap in electoral participation? A civic duty explanation. Electoral Studies, 52: 36–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, J. Scott, and Corra, Mamadi. 2016. Racial resentment and attitudes toward the use of force by police: An over‐time trend analysis. Sociological Inquiry, 86(4): 492–511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cassata, Cathy. 2020. Doctors debunk 9 popular COVID-19 vaccine myths and conspiracy theories. Healthline. 22 June. www.healthline.com/health-news/doctors-debunk-9-popular-covid-19-vaccine-myths-and-conspiracy-theoriesGoogle Scholar
Cassese, Erin C., and Barnes, Tiffany D.. 2019. Reconciling sexism and women’s support for Republican candidates: A look at gender, class, and whiteness in the 2012 and 2016 presidential races. Political Behavior, 41: 677–700.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cathey, Libby. 2020. Trump, downplaying virus, has mocked wearing masks for months: He wore one as he headed to the hospital Friday afternoon. ABC News. [online]. 2 October. abcnews.go.com/Politics/trump-downplaying-virus-mocked-wearing-masks-months/story?id=73392694Google Scholar
CAWP. 2021. Gender differences in voter turnout. Center for American Women and Politics Eagleton Institute of Politics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. cawp.rutgers.edu/facts/voters/turnoutGoogle Scholar
Chiu, Allyson. 2020. Rush Limbaugh on coronavirus: “The common cold” that’s being “weaponized” against Trump. The Washington Post. [online]. 25 February. www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/02/25/limbaugh-coronavirus-trump/Google Scholar
Choma, Russ. 2020. Donald Trump mingled without a mask at a New Jersey fundraiser. Mother Jones. [online]. 2 October. www.motherjones.com/politics/2020/10/donald-trump-mingled-without-a-mask-at-a-new-jersey-fundraiser/Google Scholar
Choma, Becky L., and Hanoch, Yaniv. 2017. Cognitive ability and authoritarianism: Understanding support for Trump and Clinton. Personality and Individual Differences, 106: 287–291.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christenson, Dino P., and Weisberg, Herbert F.. 2019. Bad characters or just more polarization? The rise of extremely negative feelings for presidential candidates. Electoral Studies, 61: 1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Claibourn, Michele P. 2008. Making a connection: Repetition and priming in presidential campaigns. The Journal of Politics, 70(4): 1142–1159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarke, Harold, Stewart, Marianne C., and Ho, Karl. 2021. Did Covid‐19 kill Trump politically? The pandemic and voting in the 2020 presidential election. Social Science Quarterly, 102(5): 2194–2209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clifton, Derrick. 2020. Trump deploys the ‘angry Black woman’ trope against Kamala Harris. NBC News. [online]. 17 August. www.nbcnews.com/news/nbcblk/trump-deploys-angry-black-woman-trope-against-kamala-harris-n1236975Google Scholar
Clinton, Joshua, Cohen, Jon, Lapinski, John, and Trussler, Marc. 2021. Partisan pandemic: How partisanship and public health concerns affect individuals’ social mobility during COVID-19. Science Advances, 7(2): eabd7204. doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abd7204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clinton, Joshua D., and Lapinski, John S.. 2004. “Targeted” advertising and voter turnout: An experimental study of the 2000 presidential election. The Journal of Politics, 66(1): 69–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Elizabeth. 2020. New CDC guidance says older adults should ‘stay at home as much as possible’ due to coronavirus. CNN. [online]. 6 March. www.cnn.com/2020/03/06/health/coronavirus-older-people-social-distancing/index.htmlGoogle Scholar
Collinson, Stephen. 2016. Why Trump’s talk of a rigged vote is so dangerous. CNN. [online]. 19 October. www.cnn.com/2016/10/18/politics/donald-trump-rigged-election/index.htmlGoogle Scholar
Colvin, Jill, and Superville, Darlene. 2020. Tear gas, threats for protestors before Trump visits church. AP News. [online]. 1 June. apnews.com/article/donald-trump-ap-top-news-dc-wire-religion-politics-15be4e293cdebe72c10304fe0ec668e4Google Scholar
Conover, Pamela Johnston, and Feldman, Stanley. 1989. Candidate perception in an ambiguous world: Campaigns, cues, and inference processes. American Journal of Political Science, 33(4): 912–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Converse, Philip E., and Markus, Gregory B.. 1979. Plus ca change…: The new CPS election study panel. The American Political Science Review, 73(1): 32–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coppock, Alexander. 2023. Persuasion in parallel: How information changes minds about politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Coppock, Alexander, Green, Donald P., and Porter, Ethan. 2022. Does digital advertising affect vote choice? Evidence from a randomized field experiment. Research & Politics, 9(1): 1–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coppock, Alexander, Hill, Seth J., and Vavreck, Lynn. 2020. The small effects of political advertising are small regardless of context, message, sender, or receiver: Evidence from 59 real-time randomized experiments. Science Advances, 6(36): 1–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corasaniti, Nick, and Epstein, Reid J.. 2021. Florida and Texas join the march as republicans press voting limits. New York Times. [online]. 6 May. www.nytimes.com/2021/05/06/us/politics/florida-texas-voting-rights-bills.htmlGoogle Scholar
Corasaniti, Nick, Epstein, Reid J., and Rutenberg, Jim. 2021. The Times called officials in every state: No evidence of voter fraud. New York Times. [online]. 23 September. www.nytimes.com/2020/11/10/us/politics/voting-fraud.htmlGoogle Scholar
Cox, Gary W., and Munger, Michael C.. 1989. Closeness, expenditures, and turnout in the 1982 US House elections. American Political Science Review, 83(1): 217–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crabtree, Kiela, and Yadon, Nicole. 2022. Remaining neutral?: White Americans’ reactions to police violence and policing. Political Behavior, 1–21.Google Scholar
Cramer, Katherine. 2020. Understanding the role of racism in contemporary US public opinion. Annual Review of Political Science, 23: 153–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dahl, Robert A. 1997. Toward democracy – A journey, reflections: 1940–1997. Berkeley, CA: Institute Government Study Press.Google Scholar
Dalager, Jon K. 1996. Voters, issues, and elections: Are the candidates’ messages getting through? The Journal of Politics, 58(2): 486–515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dale, Daniel. 2020. Fact check: A guide to 9 conspiracy theories Trump is currently Pushing. CNN. [online]. 2 September. www.cnn.com/2020/09/02/politics/fact-check-trump-conspiracy-theories-biden-covid-thugs-plane/index.htmlGoogle Scholar
Daniels, David D. 2020. The Black Church has been getting “souls to the polls” for more than 60 years. The Conversation. [online]. 30 October. theconversation.com/the-black-church-has-been-getting-souls-to-the-polls-for-more-than-60-years-145996Google Scholar
Dawsey, Josh, Scherer, Michael, and Linskey, Annie. 2020. Campaign of contrasts: Trump’s raucous crowds vs. Biden’s distanced gatherings. Washington Post. [online]. 9 September. www.washingtonpost.com/politics/campaign-of-contrasts-trumps-raucous-crowds-vs-bidens-distanced-gatherings/2020/09/08/8633e69a-f1dc-11ea-b796-2dd09962649c_story.htmlGoogle Scholar
Deason, Grace, and Dunn, Kris. 2022. Authoritarianism and perceived threat from the novel coronavirus. International Journal of Psychology, 57(3): 341–351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Delli Carpini, Michael X., and Keeter, Scott. 1996. What Americans know about politics and why it matters. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
De Zavala, Agnieszka Golec, Cislak, Aleksandra, and Wesolowska, Elzbieta. 2010. Political conservatism, need for cognitive closure, and intergroup hostility. Political Psychology, 31(4): 521–541.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dodson, Kyle. 2015. Gendered activism: A cross-national view on gender differences in protest activity. Social Currents, 2(4): 377–392CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doherty, David, and Adler, E. Scott. 2014. The persuasive effects of partisan campaign mailers. Political Research Quarterly, 67(3): 562–573CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Douglas, Karen M. 2021. COVID-19 conspiracy theories. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 24(2): 270–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Douglas, Karen M., Uscinski, Joseph E., Sutton, Robbie M., Cichocka, Aleksandra, Nefes, Turkay, Ang, Chee Siang, and Deravi, Farzin. 2019. Understanding conspiracy theories. Political Psychology, 40(Supplement 1): 3–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drakulich, Kevin, and Denver, Megan. 2022. The partisans and the persuadables: Public views of Black Lives Matter and the 2020 protests. Perspectives on Politics, 20(4): 1191–1208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drakulich, Kevin, Wozniak, Kevin H., Hagan, John, and Johnson, Devon. 2020. Race and policing in the 2016 presidential election: Black Lives Matter, the police, and dog whistle politics. Criminology, 58(2): 370–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Druckman, James N. 2003. The power of television images: The first Kennedy-Nixon debate revisited. The Journal of Politics, 65(2): 559–571.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Druckman, James N. 2004. Priming the vote: Campaign effects in a US Senate election. Political Psychology, 25(4): 577–594CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Druckman, James N., Levendusky, Matthew S., and McLain, Audrey. 2018. No need to watch: How the effects of partisan media can spread via interpersonal discussions. American Journal of Political Science, 62 (1): 99–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Druckman, James N., and McGrath, Mary C.. 2019. The evidence for motivated reasoning in climate change preference formation. Nature Climate Change, 9(2): 111–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Du Bois, W. E. B. [1903] 1986. The souls of Black folk. In Huggins, Nathan (ed.) Writings. New York: Library of America, 357–547.Google Scholar
Dunlap, David S. 2015. 1973: Meet Donald Trump. The New York Times. [online]. 30 July. www.nytimes.com/times-insider/2015/07/30/1973-meet-donald-trump/Google Scholar
Dyck, Joshua J., and Gimpel, James G.. 2005. Distance, turnout, and the convenience of voting. Social Science Quarterly, 86(3): 531–548.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edel, Charles. 2021. Dealing with authoritarian regimes is oldest challenge in American history. The Hill. [online]. 3 July. thehill.com/opinion/white-house/561471-dealing-with-authoritarian-regimes-is-the-oldest-challenge-in-american?rl=1Google Scholar
Edelson, Jack, Alduncin, Alexander, Krewson, Christopher, Sieja, James A., and Uscinski, Joseph E.. 2017. The effect of conspiratorial thinking and motivated reasoning on belief in election fraud. Political Research Quarterly, 70(4): 933–946.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emmrich, Stuart. 2020. Last night’s presidential debate was a “Shitshow” and a “Train Wreck”: Can we survive two more like this? Vogue Magazine. [online]. 9 September. www.vogue.com/article/presidential-debate-shitshow-donald-trump-joe-biden-chris-wallaceGoogle Scholar
Enders, Adam M., Uscinski, Joseph E., Seelig, Michelle I., Klofstad, Casey A., Wuchty, Stefan, Funchion, John R., Murthi, Manohar N., Premaratne, Kamal, and Stoler, Justin. 2021. The relationship between social media use and beliefs in conspiracy theories and misinformation. Political Behavior, 45: 1–21.Google ScholarPubMed
Engelhardt, Andrew M., Feldman, Stanley, and Hetherington, Marc J.. 2021. Advancing the measurement of authoritarianism. Political Behavior, (May): 1–24. doi.org/10.1007/s11109-021-09718-6Google Scholar
Enos, Ryan D., and Fowler, Anthony. 2018. Aggregate effects of large-scale campaigns on voter turnout. Political Science Research and Methods, 6(4): 733–751.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erikson, Robert S., and Wlezien, Christopher. 2012. The timeline of presidential elections: How campaigns do (and do not) matter. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fahs, Breanne, and Swank, Eric. 2022. Friends or foes? U.S. Women’s perceptions of racial justice and the Black Lives Matter protests during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Women, Politics & Policy, 43(4): 446–462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fausset, Richard. 2021. Before Breonna Taylor and George Floyd, there was Ahmaud Arbery. New York Times. [online]. 28 February. www.nytimes.com/2021/02/28/us/ahmaud-arbery-anniversary.htmlGoogle Scholar
Federico, Christopher M., Fisher, Emily L., and Deason, Grace. 2017. The authoritarian left withdraws from politics: Ideological asymmetry in the relationship between authoritarianism and political engagement. The Journal of Politics, 79(3): 1010–1023.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feldman, Stanley. 2003. Enforcing social conformity: A theory of authoritarianism. Political Psychology, 24(1): 41–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feldman, Stanley, Huddy, Leonie, Wronski, Julie, and Lown, Patrick. 2019. The interplay of empathy and individualism in support for social welfare policies. Political Psychology, 41(2): 343–362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feldman, Stanley, and Stenner, Karen. 1997. Perceived threat and authoritarianism. Political Psychology, 18(4): 741–770.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fessler, Pam. 2020. Trump’s calls for poll watchers raise fears about voter intimidation. NPR. [online]. 30 September. www.npr.org/2020/09/30/918766323/trumps-calls-for-poll-watchers-raises-fears-about-voter-intimidationGoogle Scholar
Filindra, Alexandra, Kaplan, Noah J., and Buyuker, Beyza E.. 2021. Racial resentment or sexism? White Americans’ outgroup attitudes as predictors of gun ownership and NRA membership. Sociological Inquiry, 91(2): 253–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finkel, Eli J., Bail, Christopher A., Cikara, Mina, Ditto, Peter H., Iyengar, Shanto, Klar, Samara, Mason, Lilliana et al. 2020. Political sectarianism in America. Science, 370(6516): 533–536.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finkel, Steven E. 1995. Causal analysis and panel data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finkel, Steven E., and Geer, John G.. 1998. A spot check: Casting doubt on the demobilizing effect of attack advertising. American Journal of Political Science, 42(2): 573–595.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiorina, Morris P. 1981. Retrospective voting in American national elections. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Fiorina, Morris P., and Abrams, Samuel J.. 2008. Political polarization in the American public. Annual Review of Political Science, 11: 563–588.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiorina, Morris, and Levendusky, Matthew. 2006. Disconnected: The political class versus the people. In Nivola, Pietro S. and Brady, David W. (eds.) Red and Blue Nation? Volume I: Characteristics and causes of America’s polarized politics. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press and Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press. 49–118.Google Scholar
Fowler, James H., Baker, Laura A., and Dawes, Christopher T.. 2008. Genetic variation in political participation. American Political Science Review, 102(2): 233–248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Franklin, Charles H. 1991. Eschewing obfuscation? Campaigns and the perception of US Senate incumbents. American Political Science Review, 85(4): 1193–1214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freelon, Deen, and Karpf, David. 2015. Of big birds and bayonets: Hybrid Twitter interactivity in the 2012 presidential debates. Information, Communication & Society, 18(4): 390–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freeston, Mark H., Rhéaume, Josée, Letarte, Hélène, Dugas, Michel J., and Ladouceur, Robert. 1994. Why do people worry? Personality and Individual Differences, 17(6): 791–802.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
French, David. 2020. It’s clear that America is deeply polarized. No election can overcome that. Time Magazine. [online]. 4 November. time.com/5907318/polarization-2020-election/Google Scholar
Frey, William H. 2021. Turnout in 2020 election spiked among both Democratic and Republican voting groups, new census data shows. Brookings Institute. [online]. www.brookings.edu/research/turnout-in-2020-spiked-among-both-democratic-and-republican-voting-groups-new-census-data-shows/Google Scholar
Fridkin, Kim L., and Kenney, Patrick J.. 2011. The role of candidate traits in campaigns. The Journal of Politics, 73(1): 61–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fridkin, Kim L., and Kenney, Patrick J.. 2019. Taking aim at attack advertising: Understanding the impact of negative campaigning in US senate races. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fridkin, Kim L., Kenney, Patrick J., Gershon, Sarah Allen, Shafer, Karen, and Woodall, Gina Serignese. 2007. Capturing the power of a campaign event: The 2004 presidential debate in Tempe. The Journal of Politics, 69(3): 770–785.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fridkin, Kim, Kenney, Patrick, Wintersieck, Amanda, and Carle, Jill. 2017. The upside of the long campaign: How presidential elections engage the electorate. American Politics Research, 45(2): 186–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fridkin, Kim L., Kenney, Patrick J., Gershon, Sarah Allen, and Woodall, Gina Serignese. 2008. Spinning debates: The impact of the news media’s coverage of the final 2004 presidential debate. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 13(1): 29–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fridkin, Kim, Wintersieck, Amanda, Courey, Jillian, and Thompson, Joshua. 2017. Race and police brutality: The importance of media framing. International Journal of Communication, 11: 3394–3414.Google Scholar
Funk, Carolyn L. 1996. The impact of scandal on candidate evaluations: An experimental test of the role of candidate traits. Political Behavior, 18(1): 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gadarian, Shana Kushner, Goodman, Sara Wallace, and Pepinsky, Thomas B.. 2022 Pandemic politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Gamboa, Suzanne. 2015. Donald Trump announces presidential bid by trashing Mexico, Mexicans. NBC News. [online]. 16 June. www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/donald-trump-announces-presidential-bid-trashing-mexico-mexicans-n376521Google Scholar
GaSton, Sophia, and Uscinski, Joseph E.. 2018. Out of the shadows: Conspiracy thinking on immigration. Centre for Social & Political Risk, London: Henry Jackson Society. [online]. henryjacksonsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Out-of-the-Shadows-Conspiracy-thinking-on-immigration.pdfGoogle Scholar
Gawronski, Bertram. 2012. Back to the future of dissonance theory: Cognitive consistency as a core motive. Social Cognition, 30(6): 652–668.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gelman, Andrew, and King, Gary. 1993. Why are American presidential election campaign polls so variable when votes are so predictable? British Journal of Political Science, 23(4): 409–451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerber, Alan, and Green, Donald. 1999. Misperceptions about perceptual bias. Annual Review of Political Science, 2(1): 189–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerber, Alan, Hoffman, Mitchell, Morgan, John, and Raymond, Collin. 2020. One in a million: Field experiments on perceived closeness of the election and voter turnout. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 12(3): 287–325.Google Scholar
Gerber, Alan S., Huber, Gregory A., Doherty, David, and Dowling, Conor M.. 2011. The big five personality traits in the political arena. Annual Review of Political Science, 14: 265–287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilens, Martin. 1995. Racial attitudes and opposition to welfare. The Journal of Politics, 57(4): 994–1014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glick, Peter. 2019. Gender, sexism, and the election: Did sexism help Trump more than it hurt Clinton? Politics, Groups, and Identities, 7(3): 713–723.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glick, Peter, and Fiske, Susan T.. 1996. The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of personality and social psychology, 70(3): 491–512.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glick, Peter, and Fiske, Susan T.. 2001. An ambivalent alliance: Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality. American psychologist, 56(2): 109–118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glinitzer, Konstantin, Gummer, Tobias, and Wagner, Markus. 2021. Learning facts about migration: Politically motivated learning of polarizing information about refugees. Political Psychology, 42(6): 1053–1069.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goertzel, Ted. 1994. Belief in conspiracy theories. Political Psychology, 15(4): 731–742.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldberg, Andreas C., Lanz, Simon, and Sciarini, Pascal. 2019. Mobilizing different types of voters: The influence of campaign intensity on turnout in direct democratic votes. Electoral Studies, 57(2019): 196–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldmacher, Shane. 2020. Six takeaways from the first presidential debate. New York Times. [online]. 30 September. www.nytimes.com/2020/09/30/us/politics/debate-takeaways.htmlGoogle Scholar
Goldstein, Susan B. 1999. Construction and validation of a conflict communication scale. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29(9): 1803–1832.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gomez, Brad T., and Wilson, J. Matthew. 2001. Political sophistication and economic voting in the American electorate: A theory of heterogeneous attribution. American Journal of Political Science, 45(4): 899–914.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gomez, Justin. 2020. Trump vs. Biden on the issues: Racial justice. ABC News. [online]. 29 September. abcnews.go.com/Politics/trump-biden-issues-racial-justice/story?id=73145335.Google Scholar
Grady, Constance. 2018. The waves of feminism, and why people keep fighting over them, explained. Vox. [online]. 20 July. www.vox.com/2018/3/20/16955588/feminism-waves-explained-first-second-third-fourthGoogle Scholar
Graham, David A. 2016. The myth of Gerald Ford’s fatal “Soviet Domination” gaffe. The Atlantic. [online]. 2 August. www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/08/the-myth-of-gerald-fords-disastrous-soviet-domination-gaffe/493958/Google Scholar
Graham, David A. 2020. The last time Trump alleged massive fraud. The Atlantic. [online]. 12 November. www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/11/kris-kobach-and-search-mythical-voter-fraud/617069/Google Scholar
Green, Donald P., and Gerber, Alan S.. 2019. Get out the vote: How to increase voter turnout. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.Google Scholar
Green, Donald P., and Schwam-Bard, Michael. 2015. Mobilization, participation, and American democracy: A retrospective and postscript. Party Politics, 22(2): 158–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, Eva G. T., Staerkle, Christian, and Sears, David O.. Symbolic racism and Whites’ attitudes towards punitive and preventive crime policies. Law and Human Behavior, 30(4): 435–454.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gronke, Paul. 2015. Election administration and perceptions of fair elections. Electoral Studies, 38: 1–9.Google Scholar
Gwertzman, Bernard. 1976. Ford denies Moscow dominates East Europe. The New York Times. [online]. 7 October. www.nytimes.com/1976/10/07/archives/ford-denies-moscow-dominates-east-europe-carter-rebuts-him-ford.htmlGoogle Scholar
Haddad, Mohammed. 2021. How many people have been killed by police since George Floyd? Aljazeera.com. [online]. 25 May. www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/5/25/how-many-people-have-police-killed-since-george-floydGoogle Scholar
Hair, Joseph F., and Fávero, Luiz Paulo. 2019. Multilevel modeling for longitudinal data: Concepts and applications. RAUSP Management Journal, 54: 459–489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halberstam, Yosh, and Knight, Brian. 2016. Homophily, group size, and the diffusion of political information in social networks: Evidence from Twitter. Journal of Public Economics, 143: 73–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hannity, Sean. 2020. Biden refuses to answer if he would try to pack The Supreme Court. Hannity [Fox News] (USA). 29 September. Available from NewsBank: Access World News: infoweb-newsbank.com.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/apps/news/document-view?p=AWNB&docref=news/17DD6C10872E3608Google Scholar
Harlow, Summer, Kilgo, Danielle K., Salaverría, Ramón, and García-Perdomo, Víctor. 2020. Is the whole world watching? Building a typology of protest coverage on social media from around the world. Journalism Studies, 21(11): 1590–1608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartocollis, Anemona, and Alcindor, Yamiche. 2017. Women’s march highlights as huge crowds protest Trump: ‘We’re Not Going Away’. The New York Times. [online]. 21 January. www.nytimes.com/2017/01/21/us/womens-march.htmlGoogle Scholar
Hartman, Todd K., Stocks, Thomas V. A., McKay, Ryan, Gibson-Miller, Jilly, Levita, Liat, Martinez, Anton P., Mason, Liam, McBride, Orla, Murphy, Jamie, Shevlin, Mark, Bennett, Kate M., Hyland, Philip, Karatzias, Thanos, Vallieres, Frederique, and Bentall, Richard P.. 2021. The authoritarian dynamic during the COVID-19 pandemic: Effects on nationalism and anti-immigrant sentiment. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 12(7): 1274–1285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haspel, Moshe, and Knotts, H. Gibbs. 2005. Location, location, location: Precinct placement and the costs of voting, The Journal of Politics, 67(2): 560–573.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayes, Andrew F. 2022. Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (3rd ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hayes, Chris. 2020. All in with Chris Hayes [MSNBC] (USA). 17 September. Available from NewsBank: Access World News: infoweb-newsbank-com.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/apps/news/document-view?p=AWNB&docref=news/17D9786D43934880Google Scholar
Healy, Andrew, and Lenz, Gabriel S.. 2014. Substituting the end for the whole: Why voters respond primarily to the election‐year economy. American Journal of Political Science, 58(1): 31–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Healy, Andrew, and Malhotra, Neil. 2013. Retrospective voting reconsidered. Annual Review of Politics, 16: 285–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Healy, Jack. 2021. These are the 5 people who died in the capitol riot. New York Times. [online]. 11 January. www.nytimes.com/2021/01/11/us/who-died-in-capitol-building-attack.htmlGoogle Scholar
Healy, Patrick, and Martin, Jonathan. 2016. Donald Trump won’t say if he’ll accept result of election. New York Times. [online]. 19 October. www.nytimes.com/2016/10/20/us/politics/presidential-debate.htmlGoogle Scholar
Henry, Patrick J., and Sears, David O.. 2002. The symbolic racism 2000 scale. Political Psychology, 23(2): 253–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herron, Michael C., and Smith, Daniel A.. 2012. Souls to the polls: Early voting in Florida in the shadow of House Bill 1355. Election Law Journal, 11(3): 331–347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hetherington, Marc J. 2008. Turned off or Turned on? How polarization affects political engagement. In Nivola, Pietro S. and Brady, David W. (eds.) Red and Blue Nation? Volume I: Characteristics and causes of America’s polarized politics. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press and Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1–33.Google Scholar
Hetherington, Marc J., and Nelson, Michael. 2003. Anatomy of a rally effect: George W. Bush and the war on terrorism. PS: Political Science & Politics, 36(1): 37–42.Google Scholar
Hetherington, Marc, and Suhay, Elizabeth. 2011. Authoritarianism, threat, and Americans’ support for the war on terror. American Journal of Political Science, 55(3): 546–560.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hibbs, Douglas A. 2000. Bread and peace voting in US presidential elections. Public Choice, 104(1): 149–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Highton, Benjamin. 2017. Voter identification laws and turnout in the United States. Annual Review of Political Science, 20(May): 149–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillygus, D. Sunshine. 2005. The missing link: Exploring the relationship between higher education and political engagement. Political Behavior, 27(1): 25–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillygus, D. Sunshine. 2010. Campaign effects on vote choice. In Leighley, Jan (ed.) The Oxford handbook of American elections and political behavior. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 326–345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillygus, D. Sunshine, and Jackman, Simon. 2003. Voter decision making in election 2000: Campaign effects, partisan activation, and the Clinton legacy. American Journal of Political Science, 47(4): 583–596.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillygus, D. Sunshine, and Shields, Todd. 2009. The persuadable voter: Wedge issues in presidential campaigns. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinckley, Story. 2020. Amid a pandemic, Republicans become the new door-knocking warriors. Christian Science Monitor. [online]. 14 October. www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/2020/1014/Amid-a-pandemic-Republicans-become-the-new-door-knocking-warriorsGoogle Scholar
Hochschild, Arlie. 2020. Is Donald Trump a bully or bold protector? That depends on whom you ask. The Guardian. [online]. 11 October. www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/oct/11/is-donald-trump-a-bully-or-bold-protector-that-depends-on-whom-you-askGoogle Scholar
Holan, Angie Drobnic. 2019. In context: Donald Trump’s ‘very fine people on both sides’ remarks. PolitiFact. [online]. 26 April. www.politifact.com/article/2019/apr/26/context-trumps-very-fine-people-both-sides-remarks/Google Scholar
Holbrook, Thomas. 1996. Do campaigns matter? Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holbrook, Thomas. 1999. Political learning from presidential debates. Political Behavior, 21(1): 67–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hollander, Barry A. 2018. Partisanship, individual differences, and news media exposure as predictors of conspiracy beliefs. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 95(3): 691–713.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holt, Lester. 2020. Trump contradicts CDC director on COVID vaccine timeline. NBC Nightly News. 17 September. Available from NewsBank: Access World News: infoweb-newsbank-com.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/apps/news/document-view?p=AWNB&docref=news/17DD176CD51C9E08Google Scholar
Huber, Gregory A., and Arceneaux, Kevin. 2007. Identifying the persuasive effects of presidential advertising. American Journal of Political Science, 51(4): 957–977CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huddy, Leonie., Feldman, Stanley, and Sen, Payel. 2023. Complexities in the measurement of explicit racial attitudes. In Krosnick, Jon A., Stark, Tobias H., and Scott, Amanda L. (eds.) The Cambridge handbook of implicit bias and racism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-handbook-of-implicit-bias-and-racism/DE430B0B0E51DEA222DC78896656A982#fndtn-metricsGoogle Scholar
Imhoff, Roland. 2015. Beyond (right-wing) authoritarianism. In Bilewicz, Michal, Cichocka, Aleksandra, and Soral, Wiktor (eds.) The psychology of conspiracy. New York: Taylor & Francis, 122–142.Google Scholar
Imhoff, Roland, and Bruder, Martin. 2014. Speaking (un–) truth to power: Conspiracy mentality as a generalised political attitude. European Journal of Personality, 28(1): 25–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imhoff, Roland, and Lamberty, Pia. 2020. A bioweapon or a hoax? The link between distinct conspiracy beliefs about the Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak and pandemic behavior. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 11(8): 1110–1118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iyengar, Shanto, and Kinder, Donald R.. 1987. News that matters: Television and American opinion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Iyengar, Shanto, and Krupenkin, Masha. 2018. The strengthening of partisan affect. Political Psychology, 39: 201–218CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iyengar, Shanto, and Simon, Adam F.. 2000. New perspectives and evidence on political communication and campaign effects. Annual Review of Psychology, 51: 149–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iyengar, Shanto, Sood, Gaurav, and Lelkes, Yphtach. 2012. Affect, not ideology: A social identity perspective on polarization. Public Opinion Quarterly, 76(3): 405–431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackman, Tom. 2021. Police union says 140 officers injured in Capitol riot. Washington Post. [online]. 27 January. www.washingtonpost.com/local/public-safety/police-union-says-140-officers-injured-in-capitol-riot/2021/01/27/60743642-60e2-11eb-9430-e7c77b5b0297_story.htmlGoogle Scholar
Jackson, Jon. 2021. 4 capitol police officers have died by suicide since the January 6 insurrection. Newsweek. [online]. 2 August. www.newsweek.com/3-capitol-police-officers-have-died-suicide-since-january-6-insurrection-1615452Google Scholar
Jacobs, Lawrence R., and Shapiro, Robert Y.. 1994. Issues, candidate image, and priming: The use of private polls in Kennedy’s 1960 presidential campaign. American Political Science Review, 88(3): 527–540.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobson, Gary C. 2015. How do campaigns matter? Annual Review of Political Science, 18: 31–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jarman, Jeffrey W. 2005. Political affiliation and presidential debates: A real-time analysis of the effect of the arguments used in the presidential debates. American Behavioral Scientist, 49(2): 229–242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jefferson, Hakeem, Neuner, Fabian G., and Pasek, Josh. 2021. Seeing blue in Black and White: Race and perceptions of officer-involved shootings. Perspectives on Politics, 19(4): 1165–1183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jennings, Freddie J., Warner, Benjamin R., McKinney, Mitchell S., Kearney, Cassandra C., Funk, Michelle E., and Bramlett, Josh C.. 2020. Learning from presidential debates: Who learns the most and why? Communication Studies, 71(5): 896–910.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, Richard, Hagen, Michael G., and Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. 2004. The 2000 presidential election and the foundations of party politics. New York, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Jeffrey. 2013. Honesty ratings of police, clergy differ most by party. Gallup. [online]. www.gallup.com/poll/166487/honesty-ratings-police-clergy-differ-party.aspxGoogle Scholar
Jones, David R., and McDermott, Monika L.. 2022. Partisanship and the politics of COVID vaccine hesitancy. Polity, 54(3): 408–434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jost, John T., Baldassarri, Delia S., and Druckman, James N.. 2022. Cognitive–motivational mechanisms of political polarization in social-communicative contexts. Nature Reviews Psychology, 1(10): 1–17CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jost, John T., Stern, Chadly, Rule, Nicholas O., and Sterling, Joanna. 2017. The politics of fear: Is there an ideological asymmetry in existential motivation? Social Cognition, 35(4): 324–353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahn, Kim Fridkin, and Kenney, Patrick J.. 1999. Do negative campaigns mobilize or suppress turnout? Clarifying the relationship between negativity and participation. American Political Science Review, 93(4): 877–889.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalla, Joshua L., and Broockman, David E.. 2018. The minimal persuasive effects of campaign contact in general elections: Evidence from 49 field experiments. American Political Science Review, 112(1): 148–166CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kam, Cindy D., and Archer, Allison M. N.. 2021. Mobilizing and demobilizing: Modern sexism and turnout in the# MeToo era. Public Opinion Quarterly, 85(1): 172–182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kam, Cindy D., and Kinder, Donald R.. 2007. Terror and ethnocentrism: Foundations of American support for the war on terrorism. The Journal of Politics, 69(2): 320–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kapur, Sahil. 2020. Trump has signaled he won’t accept an election lost. Many of his voters agree. NBC News. [online]. 29 October. www.nbcnews.com/politics/2020-election/trump-has-signaled-he-won-t-accept-election-loss-many-n1245304Google Scholar
Karol, David, and Miguel, Edward. 2007. The electoral cost of war: Iraq casualties and the 2004 US presidential election. The Journal of Politics, 69(3): 633–648.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelsey, Adam. 2016. Donald Trump’s 2012 election tweetstorm resurfaces as popular and electoral vote appear divided. ABC News. [online]. 9 November. abcnews.go.com/Politics/donald-trumps-2012-election-tweetstorm-resurfaces-popular-electoral/story?id=43431536Google Scholar
Keneally, Meghan. 2020. List of Trump’s accusers and their allegations of sexual misconduct. ABC News. [online]. 18 September. abcnews.go.com/Politics/list-trumps-accusers-allegations-sexual-misconduct/story?id=51956410Google Scholar
Kenski, Kate, Hardy, Bruce W., and Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. 2010. The Obama victory: How media, money, and message shaped the 2008 election. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kessler, Glenn, and Fox, Joe. 2021. The false claims that Trump keeps repeating. Washington Post. [online]. 20 January. www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/politics/fact-checker-most-repeated-disinformation/Google Scholar
Kessler, Glenn, and Rizzo, Slavador. 2020. President Trump’s false claims of vote fraud: A chronology. Washington Post. [online]. 5 November. www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/11/05/president-trumps-false-claims-vote-fraud-chronology/Google Scholar
Key, Valdimer Orlando. 1966. The responsible electorate. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kiewiet, D. Roderick. 1983. Macroeconomic and micropolitics: The electoral effects of economic issues. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Kilgo, Danielle, and Mourão, Rachel. 2019. Media effects and marginalized ideas: Relationships among media consumption and support for Black Lives Matter. International Journal of Communication, 13: 4287–4305.Google Scholar
Kim, Yongkwang. 2019. How conspiracy theories can stimulate political engagement. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties. www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17457289.2019.1651321Google Scholar
Kinder, Donald R. 1986. Presidential character revisited. In Lau, Richard R. and Sears, David O. (eds.) Political cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 233–255.Google Scholar
Kinder, Donald R., and Kam, Cindy D.. 2010. Us against them: Ethnocentric foundations of American opinion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Kinder, Donald R., and Kiewiet, D. Roderick. 1981. Sociotropic politics: The American case. British Journal of Political Science, 11(2): 129–161CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kinder, Donald R., and Sanders, Lynn M.. 1996. Divided by color: Racial politics and democratic ideals. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Knight, Dacre. 2021. COVID-19 pandemic origins: Bioweapons and the history of laboratory leaks. Southern medical journal, 114(8): 465–467.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knuckey, Jonathan, and Hassan, Komysha. 2020. Authoritarianism and support for Trump in the 2016 presidential election. The Social Science Journal, 59(1): 47–60. doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2019.06.008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koerner, Ascan F., and Fitzpatrick, Mary Anne. 1997. Family type and conflict: The impact of conversation orientation and conformity orientation on conflict in the family. Communication Studies, 48(1): 59–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kolata, Gina, and Rubin, Roni Caryn. 2020. “Don’t Be Afraid of Covid,” Trump says, undermining public health messages. New York Times. [online]. 8 October. www.nytimes.com/2020/10/05/health/trump-covid-public-health.htmlGoogle Scholar
Kranish, Michael, and Viser, Matt. 2020. After the Anita Hill hearings in 1991, Joe Biden began a long quest to redeem himself with women. Washington Post. [online]. 2 August. www.washingtonpost.com/politics/after-the-anita-hill-hearings-in-1991-joe-biden-began-a-long-quest-to-redeem-himself-with-women/2020/07/31/ee939b8a-9576-11ea-82b4-c8db161ff6e5_story.htmlGoogle Scholar
Kühne, Rinaldo, Schemer, Christian, Matthes, Jörg, and Wirth, Werner. 2011. Affective priming in political campaigns: How campaign-induced emotions prime political opinions. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 23(4): 485–507.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kumar, V. Vineeth, and Tankha, Geetika. 2022. The relationship between personality traits and COVID-19 anxiety: A mediating model. Behavioral Sciences, 12: 24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lamberty, Pia K., Hellmann, Jens H., and Oeberst, Aileen. 2018. The winner knew it all? Conspiracy beliefs and hindsight perspective after the 2016 US general election. Personality and Individual Differences, 123(1): 236–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lane, Robert E. 1955. Political personality and electoral choice. American Political Science Review, 49(1): 173–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lang, Marissa. 2020. Federal officials stockpiled munitions, sought ‘heat ray’ device before clearing Lafayette Square, whistleblower says. Washington Post. [online]. 17 September. www.washingtonpost.com/local/dc-protest-lafayette-square/2020/09/16/ca0174e4-f788-11ea-89e3-4b9efa36dc64_story.htmlGoogle Scholar
Lanoue, David J., and Schrott, Peter R.. 1989. Voters’ reactions to televised presidential debates: Measurement of the source and magnitude of opinion change. Political Psychology, 10(2): 275–285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larsen, Knud S., and Long, Ed. 1988. Attitudes toward sex-roles: Traditional or egalitarian? Sex Roles, 19(1–2): 1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lau, Richard R. 1982. Negativity in political perception. Political Behavior, 4(4): 353–378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lau, Richard R., and Pomper, Gerald M.. 2004. Negative campaigning: An analysis of US Senate elections. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Laustsen, Lasse, and Bor, Alexander. 2017. The relative weight of character traits in political candidate evaluations: Warmth is more important than competence, leadership and integrity. Electoral Studies, 49: 96–107CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lavine, Howard, Lodge, Milton, and Freitas, Kate. 2005. Threat, authoritarianism, and selective exposure to information. Political Psychology, 26(2): 219–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lazarsfeld, Paul F., Berelson, Bernard, and Gaudet, Hazel. 1948. The people’s choice: How the voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Leighley, Jan, and Nagler, Jonathan. 2013. Who votes now? Demographics, issues, inequality, and turnout in the United States. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lemire, Jonathan, Colvin, Jill, and Suderman, Alan. 2020. Amid protests, Trump talks of war – and reelection. AP News. [online]. 1 June. apnews.com/article/virus-outbreak-donald-trump-ap-top-news-politics-violence-b3817623ef861818803b5676d43741eaGoogle Scholar
Leonhardt, David, and Philbrick, Ian Prasad. 2021. One year later on the anniversary of George Floyd’s murder, we examine its legacy so far. The New York Times. [online]. 25 May. www.nytimes.com/2021/05/25/briefing/george-floyd-legacy-anniversary.htmlGoogle Scholar
Leonnig, Carol D., Harris, Shane, and Dawsey, Josh. 2019. Trump’s calls with foreign leaders have long worried aides, leaving some ‘genuinely horrified.’ Washington Post. [online]. 4 October. www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trumps-calls-with-foreign-leaders-have-long-worried-aides-leaving-some-genuinely-horrified/2019/10/04/537cc7a8-e602-11e9-a331-2df12d56a80b_story.htmlGoogle Scholar
Levendusky, Matthew. 2013. Partisan media exposure and attitudes toward the opposition. Political Communication, 30(4): 565–581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levendusky, Matthew, Pasek, Josh, Holbert, R. Lance, Renninger, Andrew, Ophir, Yotam, Walter, Dror, Hardy, Bruce, Kenski, Kate, Winneg, Ken, Romer, Daniel, and Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. 2023. Democracy amid crises: Polarization, pandemic, protests, and persuasion. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Levy, Morris. 2021. Winning cures everything? Beliefs about voter fraud, voter confidence, and the 2016 election. Electoral Studies, 74: 1–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, Tanya. 2020. Nine COVID-19 myths that just won’t go away. Scientific American. [online]. 18 August. www.scientificamerican.com/article/nine-covid-19-myths-that-just-wont-go-away/Google Scholar
Lewis-Beck, Michael S. 1988. Economics and elections: The major western democracies. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Lewis-Beck, Michael S., and Rice, Tom W.. 1992. Forecasting elections. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press.Google Scholar
Liptak, Kevin, Collins, Kaitlan, Klein, Betsy, Acosta, Jim, and LeBlanc, Paul. 2020. President Donald Trump and first lady Melania Trump test positive for COVID-19. CNN. [online]. 2 October. www.cnn.com/2020/10/01/politics/hope-hicks-positive-coronavirus/index.htmlGoogle Scholar
Lizotte, Mary-Kate. 2020. Gender differences in public opinion. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Lohse, Gerald, Bellman, Steven, and Johnson, Eric J.. 2000. Consumer buying behavior on the Internet: Findings from panel data. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 14(1): 15–29.3.0.CO;2-C>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lopez, German.2020. The reviews are in: The first presidential debate was a disaster. Vox. [online]. 30 September. www.vox.com/2020/9/30/21495046/presidential-debate-trump-biden-reviews-who-won-disasterGoogle Scholar
Lyman, Brian. 2020. Fact check: Historians do teach that first Black members of Congress were Republicans. USA Today. [online]. 18 June. www.usatoday.com/story/news/factcheck/2020/06/18/fact-check-democrats-republicans-and-complicated-history-race/3208378001/Google Scholar
Lynch, Timothy J. 2020. Republicans have used a ‘law and order’ message to win elections before. This is why Trump could do it again. The Conversation. theconversation.com/republicans-have-used-a-law-and-order-message-to-win-elections-before-this-is-why-trump-could-do-it-again-145306Google Scholar
Ma, Yanni, Dixon, Graham, and Hmielowski, Jay D.. 2019. Psychological reactance from reading basic facts on climate change: The role of prior views and political identification. Environmental Communication, 13(1): 71–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maio, Gregory R., and Esses, Victoria M.. 2001. The need for affect: Individual differences in the motivation to approach or avoid emotions. Journal of Personality, 69(4): 583–614.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Makse, Todd, and Sokhey, Anand E.. 2010. Revisiting the divisive primary hypothesis: 2008 and the Clinton – Obama nomination battle. American Politics Research, 38(2): 233–265.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malhotra, Neil, Michelson, Melissa R., Rogers, Todd, and Valenzuela, Ali Adam. 2011. Text messages as mobilization tools: The conditional effect of habitual voting and election salience. American Politics Research, 39(4): 664–681.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mann, Christopher B. 2021. Can conversing with a computer increase turnout? Mobilization using chatbot communication. Journal of Experimental Political Science, 8(1): 51–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Markus, Gregory B., and Converse, Philip E.. 1979. A dynamic simultaneous equation model of electoral choice. The American Political Science Review, 73(4): 1055–1070.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, Adam. 2020. Daily U.S. coronavirus cases second-highest on election day. Wall Street Journal. [online]. 5 November. www.wsj.com/livecoverage/covid-2020-11-04Google Scholar
Martin, Jonathan, and Burns, Alexander. 2020. With cross talk, lies and mockery, Trump tramples decorum in debate with Biden. New York Times. [online]. 29 September. www.nytimes.com/2020/09/29/us/politics/trump-biden-debate.htmlGoogle Scholar
Mason, Melanie. 2020. The presidential cover-up, or how Trump went from shunning to wearing a mask. Los Angeles Times. [online]. 14 July. www.latimes.com/politics/story/2020-07-14/trump-coronavirus-mask-evolutionGoogle Scholar
Matthews, J. Scott. 2019. Issue priming revisited: Susceptible voters and detectable effects. British Journal of Political Science, 49(2): 513–531.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mattila, Mikko, Wass, Hanna, Söderlund, Peter, Fredriksson, Sami, Fadjukoff, Päivi, and Kokko, Katja. 2011. Personality and turnout: Results from the Finnish longitudinal studies. Scandinavian Political Studies, 34(4): 287–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazzoni, Mary. 2021. Women CEOs are breaking records in the Fortune 500. Triple Pundit. [online]. 7 June. www.triplepundit.com/story/2021/women-ceos-fortune-500/723736Google Scholar
McCarthy, Justin. 2020. Confidence in accuracy of U.S. election matches record low. Gallup. [online]. 30 October. news.gallup.com/poll/321665/confidence-accuracy-election-matches-record-low.aspxGoogle Scholar
McDonald, Michael P. 2020. November general election turnout rates. United States Elections Project. www.electproject.org/2020gGoogle Scholar
McGowen, Ernest B., and Wylie, Kristin N.. 2020. Racialized differences in perceptions of and emotional responses to police killings of unarmed African Americans. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 8(2): 396–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKinney, Mitchell S., & Carlin, Diana B.. 2004. Political campaign debates. In Kaid, Lynda L. (ed.) Handbook of political communication research. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 203–234.Google Scholar
McKinney, Mitchell S., Rill, Leslie A., and Thorson, Esther. 2016. Civic engagement through presidential debates: Young citizens’ political attitudes in the 2012 election. American Behavioral Scientist, 58(6): 755–775.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKinney, Mitchell S., and Warner, Benjamin R.. 2013. Do presidential debates matter? Examining a decade of campaign debate effects. Argumentation and Advocacy, 49(4): 238–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, Joanne M., Saunders, Kyle L., and Farhart, Christina E.. 2016. Conspiracy endorsement as motivated reasoning: The moderating roles of political knowledge and trust. American Journal of Political Science, 60(4): 824–844.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, Warren E., and Shanks, J. Merrill. 1996. The New American voter. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Miller, Jon D., Woods, Logan T., and Kalmbach, Jason. 2022. The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic in a polarized political system: Lessons from the 2020 election. Electoral Studies, 80: 1–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, Glenn E., and Wlezien, Christopher. 1995. The impact of legal constraints on voter registration, turnout, and the composition of the American electorate. Political Behavior, 17(2): 179–202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mondak, Jeffery J., Hibbing, Matthew V., Canache, Damarys, Seligson, Mitchell A., and Anderson, Mary R.. 2010. Personality and civic engagement: An integrative framework for the study of trait effects on political behavior. American Political Science Review, 104(1): 85–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montanaro, Domenico. 2020. Trump derails 1st presidential debate with Biden, and 5 other takeaways. NPR. [online]. 30 September. www.npr.org/2020/09/30/918500976/trump-derails-first-presidential-debate-with-biden-and-5-other-takeawaysGoogle Scholar
Morris, Robert C., and LeCount, Ryan Jerome. 2020. The value of social control: Racial resentment, punitiveness, and White support for spending on law enforcement. Sociological Perspectives, 63(5): 697–718.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mullinix, Kevin J., Bolsen, Toby, and Norris, Robert J.. 2021. The feedback effects of controversial police use of force. Political Behavior, 43(2021): 881–898.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mutz, Diana C. 2002. The consequences of cross-cutting networks for political participation. American Journal of Political Science, 46(4): 838–855.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mutz, Diana C., and Reeves, Byron. 2005. The new videomalaise: Effects of televised incivility on political trust. American Political Science Review, 99(1): 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Myrdal, Gunnar. 1944. An American dilemma: The Negro problem and modern democracy. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Nannestad, Peter, and Paldam, Martin. 1997. The grievance asymmetry revisited: A micro study of economic voting in Denmark, 1986–92. European Journal of Political Economy, 13(1): 81–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, Libby. 2016. Donald Trump’s history of misogyny, sexism, and harassment: A comprehensive review. Vox. [online]. 12 October. www.vox.com/2016/10/8/13110734/donald-trump-leaked-audio-recording-billy-bush-sexismGoogle Scholar
Niño, Michael D., and Hearne, Brittany N.. 2022. Dimensions of acculturation and biological dysregulation among Latina/os: The role of ethnic background, gender, and immigrant generation. Ethnicity & Health, 27(4): 963–979.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norrander, Barbara. 2008. The history of gender gaps. In Whittaker, Lois Duke (ed.) Voting the gender gap. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press, 9–32.Google Scholar
Norris, Pippa, Garnett, Holly Ann, and Grömping, Max. 2020. The paranoid style of American elections: Explaining perceptions of electoral integrity in an age of populism. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 30(1): 105–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NPR. 2020. What’s changed since polls were wrong about 2016’s presidential election. NPR. [online]. 28 October. www.npr.org/2020/10/28/928556186/whats-changed-since-polls-were-wrong-about-2016s-presidential-electionGoogle Scholar
Oliver, J. Eric, and Wood, Thomas J.. 2014. Conspiracy theories and the paranoid style(s) of mass opinion. American Journal of Political Science, 58(4): 952–966.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Panagopoulos, Costas. 2012. Campaign context and preference dynamics in US presidential elections. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 22(2): 123–137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Papaioannou, Kostas, Pantazi, Myrto, van Prooijen, Jan-Willem. 2023. Is democracy under threat? Why belief in conspiracy theories predicts autocratic attitudes. European Journal of Social Psychology, 53(5): 846–856. doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2939CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, Kim, Graff, Nikki, and Igielnik, Ruth (2019). Generation Z looks a lot like millennials on key social and political issues. PEW Research. [online]. www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2019/01/17/generation-z-looks-a-lot-like-millennials-on-key-social-and-political-issues/Google Scholar
Paz, Christina. 2020. All the President’s lies about the coronavirus an unfinished compendium of Trump’s overwhelming dishonesty during a national emergency. The Atlantic. [online]. 2 November. www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2020/11/trumps-lies-about-coronavirus/608647/Google Scholar
Peeples, Lynne. 2020. Face masks: What the data say. Nature, 586(7828): 186–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peterson, David A. M. 2009. Campaign learning and vote determinants. American Journal of Political Science, 53(2): 445–460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peterson, Erik, Goel, Sharad, and Iyengar, Shanto. 2019. Partisan selective exposure in online news consumption: Evidence from the 2016 presidential campaign. Political Science Research and Methods, 9(2): 1–17.Google Scholar
Pettypiece, Shannon. 2022. Biden signs police reform executive order on anniversary of George Floyd’s death. NBC News. [online]. 25 May. www.nbcnews.com/politics/white-house/biden-signs-police-reform-executive-order-anniversary-george-floyds-de-rcna30548Google Scholar
Pomper, Gerald M. 2005. The presidential election: The ills of American politics after 9/11. In Nelson, Michael (ed.) The elections of 2004. Washington: CQ Press, 42–68.Google Scholar
Popkin, Samuel L. 2012. The candidate: What it takes to win – and hold – the White House. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pratto, Felicia, Sidanius, Jim, Stallworth, Lisa M., and Malle, Bertram F.. 1994. Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(4): 741-CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prichard, Eric C., and Christman, Stephen D.. 2020. Authoritarianism, conspiracy beliefs, gender and COVID-19: Links between individual differences and concern about COVID-19, mask wearing behaviors, and the tendency to blame China for the virus. Frontiers in Psychology, 11: 1–7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prior, Markus. 2007. Post-broadcast democracy: How media choice increases inequality in political involvement and polarizes elections. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prior, Markus. 2012. Who watches presidential debates? Measurement problems in campaign effects research. Public Opinion Quarterly, 76(2): 350–363.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ratliff, Kate A., Redford, Liz, Conway, John, and Smith, Colin Tucker. 2019. Engendering support: Hostile sexism predicts voting for Donald Trump over Hillary Clinton in the 2016 US presidential election. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 22(4): 578–593.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Redlawsk, David P. 2002. Hot cognition or cool consideration? Testing the effects of motivated reasoning on political decision making. Journal of Politics, 64(4): 1021–1044.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reuters. 2020. U.S. saw Summer of Black Lives Matter protests demanding change. Reuters. [online]. 7 December. www.reuters.com/article/global-poy-blm/u-s-saw-summer-of-black-lives-matter-protests-demanding-change-idUSKBN28H1K1Google Scholar
Riccardi, Nicholas. 2020. Here’s the reality behind Trump’s claims about mail voting. AP News. [online]. 30 September. apnews.com/article/virus-outbreak-joe-biden-election-2020-donald-trump-elections-3e8170c3348ce3719d4bc7182146b582Google Scholar
Richey, Sean. 2017. A birther and a truther: The influence of the authoritarian personality on conspiracy beliefs. Politics & Policy, 45(3): 465–485.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rizzo, Salvador. 2020. Trump’s fusillade of falsehoods on mail voting. Washington Post. [online]. 11 September. www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/09/11/trumps-fusillade-falsehoods-mail-voting/Google Scholar
Rogowski, Jon. 2014. Electoral choice, ideological conflict, and political participation. American Journal of Political Science, 58(2): 479–494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenstone, Steven J. 1983. Forecasting presidential elections. New Haven: Yale University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenstone, Steven J., and Hansen, John Mark. 1993. Mobilization, participation, and democracy in America. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Rosenstone, Steven J., and Wolfinger, Raymond E.. 1978. The effect of registration laws on voter turnout. The American Political Science Review, 72(1): 22–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaffner, Brian F. 2005. Priming gender: Campaigning on women’s issues in US Senate elections. American Journal of Political Science, 49(4): 803–817.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaffner, Brian F., MacWilliams, Matthew, and Nteta, Tatishe. 2018. Understanding White polarization in the 2016 vote for president: The sobering role of racism and sexism. Political Science Quarterly, 133(1): 9–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schattschneider, Elmer Eric. (1960). The semi-sovereign people: A realist’s view of democracy in America. New York: Holt, Reinhart, and Winston.Google Scholar
Scherer, Zachary. 2021. Majority of voters used nontraditional methods to cast ballots in 2020. Census. [online]. 29 April. www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/04/what-methods-did-people-use-to-vote-in-2020-election.htmlGoogle Scholar
Schraufnagel, Scot, Pomante, Michael J., and Li, Quan. 2020. Cost of voting in the American States: 2020. Election Law Journal: Rules, Politics, and Policy. www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/elj.2020.0666CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schrott, Peter R., and Lanoue, David J.. 2013. The power and limitations of televised presidential debates: Assessing the real impact of candidate performance on public opinion and vote choice. Electoral Studies, 32(4): 684–692.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, Brian. 2020. Joe Biden pledges to pick a woman to be his running mate. CNBC. [online]. 15 March. www.cnbc.com/2020/03/15/democratic-debate-joe-biden-pledges-to-pick-a-woman-as-his-running-mate.htmlGoogle Scholar
Semetko, Holli A., and Valkenburg, Patti M.. 2000. Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news. Journal of Communication, 50(2): 93–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaverdian, Narek, Yeboa, Debra N., Gardner, Liz, Harari, Paul M., Liao, Kaiping, McCloskey, Susan, Tuli, Richard, Vapiwala, Neha, and Jagsi, Reshma. 2019. Nationwide survey of patients’ perspectives regarding their radiation and multidisciplinary cancer treatment experiences. Journal of Oncology Practice, 15(12): e1010–e1017.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaw, Daron R. 1999. A study of presidential campaign event effects from 1952 to 1992. The Journal of Politics, 61(2): 387–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw, Daron R., Dun, Lindsay, and Heise, Sarah. 2022. Mobilizing peripheral partisan voters: A field experimental analysis from three California congressional election campaigns. American Politics Research, 50(5): 587–602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shino, Enrijeta, and Smith, Daniel. 2020. Political knowledge and convenience voting. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 32(2) (September): 1–21. www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17457289.2020.1814308Google Scholar
Shino, Enrijeta, and Smith, Daniel A.. 2021. Pandemic politics: COVID-19, health concerns, and vote choice in the 2020 general election. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 31(sup1): 191–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Segers, Grace. 2020. Trump says he wears masks “when needed” and mocks Biden’s masks. CBS News. [online]. 30 September. www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-says-he-wears-masks-when-needed-and-mocks-bidens-masks/Google Scholar
Seipel, Arnie. 2016. Trump makes unfounded claim that ‘Millions’ voted illegally for Clinton. NPR. [online]. 27 November. www.npr.org/2016/11/27/503506026/trump-makes-unfounded-claim-that-millions-voted-illegally-for-clintonGoogle Scholar
Sides, John, Tausanovitch, Chris, and Vavreck, Lynn.2022. The bitter end: The 2020 presidential campaign and the challenge to American democracy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Sides, John, and Vavreck, Lynn. 2014. The Gamble: Choice and chance in the 2012 presidential election. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silva, Daniela. 2020. Trump’s call for supporters to watch polls ‘very carefully’ raises concerns of voter intimidation. NBC News. [online]. 30 September www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/trump-s-call-supporters-watch-polls-very-carefully-raises-concerns-n1241613Google Scholar
Sinclair, Betsy, Smith, Steven S., and Tucker, Patrick D.. 2018. “It’s largely a rigged system”: Voter confidence and the winner effect in 2016. Political Research Quarterly, 71(4): 854–868.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singer, Matthew. 2011. When do voters actually think “It’s the Economy”? Evidence from the 2008 presidential campaign. Electoral Studies, 30(4): 621–632.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, David Norman. 2019. Authoritarianism reimagined: The riddle of Trump’s base. The Sociological Quarterly, 60(2): 210–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Terrance. 2020. Trump has longstanding history of calling elections ‘rigged’ if he doesn’t like the results. ABC News. [online]. 11 November. abcnews.go.com/Politics/trump-longstanding-history-calling-elections-rigged-doesnt-results/story?id=74126926Google Scholar
Sniderman, Paul M., and Piazza, Thomas Leonard. 1993. The scar of race. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Socia, Kelly M., Morabito, Melissa S., Bond, Brenda J., and Nader, Elias S.. 2021. Public perceptions of police agency fairness and the willingness to call police. The American Review of Public Administration, 51(5): 360–373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solt, Frederick. 2012. The social origins of authoritarianism. Political Research Quarterly, 65(4): 703–713.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Southwell, Priscilla L. 2007. Vote-by-mail: Voter preferences and self-reported voting behavior in the state of Oregon. American Review of Politics, 28: 139–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spence, Janet T., and Hahn, Eugene D.. 1997. The attitudes toward women scale and attitude change in college students. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(1): 17–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steeper, Frederick T. 1978. Public response to Gerald Ford’s Statement in Eastern Europe in the second debate. In Bishop, George F., Meadow, Robert G., and Jackson-Beeck, Marilyn (eds.) The presidential debates: Media, electoral and policy perspectives. New York: Praeger, 81–101.Google Scholar
Stempel, Carl, Hargrove, Thomas, and Stempel III, Guido H.. 2007. Media use, social structure, and belief in 9/11 conspiracy theories. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 84(2): 353–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stenner, Karen. 2005. The authoritarian dynamic. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stepp, Kyla K., and Castle, Jeremiah J.. 2021. Research note: Authoritarianism, racial resentment, and attitudes on the Colin Kaepernick protests. The Social Science Journal, 1–11. www-tandfonline-com.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080%2F03623319.2021.1884781CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strickler, Ryan, and Lawson, Edward. 2022. Racial conservatism, self-monitoring, and perceptions of police violence. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 10(2): 254–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stroud, Natalie Jomini. 2011. Niche news: The politics of news choice. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sullivan, Andy. 2020. “This clown” – “Nothing smart about you”: Un-presidential insults fly in first Trump-Biden debate. Reuters. [online]. 29 September. www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-election-debate-insults/this-clown-nothing-smart-about-you-un-presidential-insults-fly-in-first-trump-biden-debate-idUSKBN26L0R8Google Scholar
Summers, Juana. 2020. Trump calls Harris a ‘Monster,’ reviving a pattern of attacking women of color. NPR. [online]. 9 October. www.npr.org/2020/10/09/921884531/trump-calls-harris-a-monster-reviving-a-pattern-of-attacking-women-of-colorGoogle Scholar
Sutton, Robbie M., and Douglas, Karen M.. 2014. Examining the monological nature of conspiracy theories. In van Prooijen, Jan-Willem and van Lange, Paul A. M. (eds.) Power politics paranoia: Why people are suspicious their lead. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 254–272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sweren-Becker, Eliza, Glatz, Anne, and Campbell, Elisabeth. 2020. Voting during COVID-19. The Brennan Center for Justice. [online]. 20 November. www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/voting-during-covid-19Google Scholar
Sydnor, Emily. 2019. Disrespectful democracy: The psychology of political incivility. New York: Columbia University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, Steven. 2022. The psychology of pandemics. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 18: 581–609.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, Derrick Bryson. 2021. George Floyd protests: A timeline. The New York Times. [online]. 28 March. www.nytimes.com/article/george-floyd-protests-timeline.htmlGoogle Scholar
Tesler, Michael. 2013. The return of old-fashioned racism to White Americans’ partisan preferences in the early Obama era. The Journal of Politics, 75(1): 110–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Testa, Paul F., Hibbing, Matthew V., and Ritchie, Melinda. 2014. Orientations toward conflict and the conditional effects of political disagreement. The Journal of Politics, 76(3): 770–785.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, Deja, and Horowitz, Juliana Menasce. 2020. Support for Black Lives Matter has decreased since June but remains strong among Black Americans. Pew Research Center. [online]. 16 September. www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/09/16/support-for-black-lives-matter-has-decreased-since-june-but-remains-strong-among-black-americans/Google Scholar
Troisi, Alfonso, Nanni, Roberta Croce, Riconi, Alessandra, Carola, Valeria, and Di Cave, David. 2021. Fear of COVID-19 among healthcare workers: The role of neuroticism and fearful attachment. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 10(19): 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tuch, Steven A., and Weitzer, Ronald. 1997. Trends: Racial differences in attitudes toward the police. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 61(4): 642–663.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tufte, Edward. 1978. Political control of the economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Twyman, Joe. 2008. Getting it right: YouGov and online survey research in Britain. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 18(4): 343–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ulbig, Stacy G., and Funk, Carolyn L.. 1999. Conflict avoidance and political participation. Political Behavior, 21(3): 265–282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uscinski, Joseph E., Enders, Adam M., Seelig, Michelle I., Klofstad, Casey A., Funchion, John R., Everett, Caleb, Wuchty, Stefan, Premaratne, Kamal, and Murthi, Manohar N.. 2021. American politics in two dimensions: Partisan and ideological identities versus anti‐establishment orientations. American Journal of Political Science, 65(4): 877–895.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uscinski, Joseph E., Klofstad, Casey, and Atkinson, Matthew D.. 2016. What drives conspiratorial beliefs? The role of informational cues and predispositions. Political Research Quarterly, 69(1): 57–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uscinski, Joseph E., and Olivella, Santiago. 2017. The conditional effect of conspiracy thinking on attitudes toward climate change. Research & Politics, 4(4): 1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uscinski, Joseph E., and Parent, Joseph M.. 2014 American conspiracy theories. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valentino, Nicholas A., Hutchings, Vincent L., and White, Ismail K.. 2002. Cues that matter: How political ads prime racial attitudes during campaigns. American Political Science Review, 96(1): 75–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valentino, Nicholas A., Hutchings, Vincent L., and Williams, Dmitri. 2004. The impact of political advertising on knowledge, internet information seeking, and candidate preference. Journal of Communication, 54(2): 337–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Prooijen, Jan‐Willem, and Douglas, Karen M.. 2018. Belief in conspiracy theories: Basic principles of an emerging research domain. European Journal of Social Psychology, 48(7): 897–908.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vavreck, Lynn. 2009. The message matters: The economy and presidential campaigns. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vavreck, Lynn, and Rivers, Douglas. 2008. The 2006 cooperative congressional election study. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 18(4): 355–366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verba, Sidney, Schlozman, Kay Lehman, and Brady, Henry E.. 1995. Voice and equality: Civic voluntarism in American politics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vonnahme, Greg, and Miller, Beth. 2013. Candidate cues and voter confidence in American elections. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion & Parties, 23(2): 223–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Voth, Ben. 2017. The presidential debates 2016. In Denton, Robert E., (ed.) The 2016 US presidential campaign. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 77–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walter, Annemarie S., and Drochon, Hugo. 2020. Conspiracy thinking in Europe and America: A comparative study. Political Studies, 70: 1–20. journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0032321720972616Google Scholar
Wang, Haiyan, and van Prooijen, Jan‐Willem. 2022. Stolen elections: How conspiracy beliefs during the 2020 American presidential elections changed over time. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 37: 277–289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warner, Benjamin R., and McKinney, Mitchell S.. 2013. To unite and divide: The polarizing effect of presidential debates. Communication Studies, 64(5): 508–527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weider-Hatfield, Deborah, and Hatfield, John D.. 1995. Relationships among conflict management styles, levels of conflict, and reactions to work. The Journal of Social Psychology, 135(6): 687–698.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weinschenk, Aaron, and Panagopoulos, Costas. 2016. Convention effects: Examining the impact of national presidential nominating conventions on information, preferences, and behavioral intentions. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 26(4): 511–531.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolak, Jennifer. 2020. Conflict avoidance and gender gaps in political engagement. Political Behavior. doi.org/10.1007/s11109-020-09614-5Google Scholar
Wolfinger, Raymond E., and Rosenstone, Steven J.. 1980. Who votes? New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Womick, Jake, Rothmund, Tobias, Azevedo, Flavio, King, Laura A., and Jost, John T.. 2019. Group-based dominance and authoritarian aggression predict support for Donald Trump in the 2016 US presidential election. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10(5): 643–652.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yawn, Mike, and Beatty, Bob. 2000. Debate-induced opinion change: What matters? American Politics Quarterly, 28(2): 270–285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yen, Hope, Swenson, , , Ali, and Seitz, Amanda. 2020. AP FACT CHECK: Trump’s claims of vote rigging are all wrong. AP News. [online]. 3 December. apnews.com/article/election-2020-ap-fact-check-joe-biden-donald-trump-technology-49a24edd6d10888dbad61689c24b05a5Google Scholar
Zaller, John. R. 1992. The nature and origins of mass opinion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×