Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-hc48f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-24T19:16:04.288Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

10 - Developing Intelligence through Instruction

from Part II - Development of Intelligence

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 December 2019

Robert J. Sternberg
Affiliation:
Cornell University, New York
Get access

Summary

This chapter discusses the possibility of increasing intelligence by instruction. It considers the question of whether increasing intelligence should be a goal of education, assuming that intelligence can be taught. It then considers the question of whether intelligence can be taught. It reviews several organized attempts to teach intelligence, and proposes a perspective for viewing such attempts, given the mixed results they have produced.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ackerman, P. L. (2014). Nonsense, common sense, and science of expert performance: Talent and individual differences. Intelligence, 45, 617.Google Scholar
Adams, M. J. (1989). Thinking skills curricula: Their promise and progress. Educational Psychologist, 24, 2577.Google Scholar
Allensworth, E. M., Moore, P. T., Sartain, L., & de la Torre, M. (2017). The educational benefits of attending higher performing schools: Evidence from Chicago high schools. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 39, 175197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anastasi, A. (1988). Psychological testing (6th ed.). New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. (2000). Learning and memory: An integrated approach (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Anderson, S. B., & Messick, S. (1974). Social competency in young children. Developmental Psychology, 10, 282293.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andrews, G. R., & Debus, R. I. (1978). Persistence and the causal perception of failure: Modifying cognitive attributions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 154166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandura, A. (1997). Self efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.Google Scholar
Barnett, W. S. (1995). Long-term effects of early childhood programs on cognitive and school outcomes. Future of Children, 5(3), 2550.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnett, W. S. (2002). The battle over Head Start: What the research shows. New Brunswick, NJ: National Institute for Early Education Research.Google Scholar
Barnett, W. S. (2011). Effectiveness of early educational intervention. Science, 333, 975978.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baron, J. (1988). Thinking and deciding. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Baron, J. (1991). Beliefs about thinking. In Voss, J. F., Perkins, D. N., & Segal, J. W. (Eds.), Informal reasoning and education (pp. 169186). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Barreto, F. B., de Miguel, M. S., Ibarluzea, J., Andiarena, A., & Arranz, E. (2017). Family context and cognitive development in early childhood: A longitudinal study. Intelligence, 65, 1122.Google Scholar
Batha, K., & Carroll, M. (2007). Metacognitive training aids decision making. Australian Journal of Psychology, 59, 6469.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beaver, K. M., Schwartz, J. A., Nedelec, J. L., Connolly, E. J., Boutwell, B. B., & Barnes, J. C. (2013). Intelligence is associated with criminal justice processing: Arrest through incarceration. Intelligence, 41, 277288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beyth-Marom, R., Fischhoff, B., Quadrel, M. J., & Furby, L. (1991). Teaching adolescents decision making: A critical review. In Baron, J. & Brown, R. V. (Eds.), Teaching decision making to adolescents (pp. 1959). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Boccio, C. M., Beaver, K. M., & Schwartz, J. A. (2018). The role of verbal intelligence in becoming a successful criminal: Results from a longitudinal sample. Intelligence, 66, 2431.Google Scholar
Botvinik, M., & Braver, T. (2015). Motivation and cognitive control: From behavior to neural mechanism. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 83113.Google Scholar
Bouchard, J., & Villeda, S. A. (2014). Aging and brain rejuvenation as systemic events. Journal of Neurochemistry, 132, 519.Google Scholar
Bradway, K. P., Thompson, C. W., & Cravens, R. B. (1958). Preschool IQs after twenty-five years. Journal of Educational Psychology, 49, 278281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bransford, J. D., & Stein, B. S. (1984). The ideal problem solver: A guide for improving thinking, learning, and creativity. New York: Freeman.Google Scholar
Brinch, C. N., Galloway, T. A. (2012). Schooling in adolescence raises IQ scores. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 425430.Google Scholar
Brody, N. (2014). A plea for the teaching of intelligence: Personal reflections. Intelligence, 42, 136141.Google Scholar
Burchinal, M., Lee, M., & Ramey, C. T. (1989). Type of daycare and preschool intellectual development in disadvantaged children. Child Development, 60, 128137.Google Scholar
Burhan, N. A. S., Mohamad, M. R., Kurniawan, Y., & Sidek, A. H. (2014). National intelligence, basic human needs, and their effect on economic growth. Intelligence, 44, 103111.Google Scholar
Byun, S-y., & Park, H. (2012). The academic success of East Asian American youth: The role of shadow education. Sociology of Education, 85(1), 4060.Google Scholar
Calvin, C. M., Batty, G. D., Der, G., Brett, C. E., Taylor, A., Pattie, A., et al. (2017). Childhood intelligence in relation to major causes of death in 68 year follow-up: Prospective population study. British Medical Journal, 357. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j2708Google Scholar
Campbell, F. A., & Burchinal, M. R. (2008). Early childhood interventions: The Abecedarian Project. In Kyllonen, P. C., Roberts, R. D., & Stankov, L. (Eds.), Extending intelligence: Enhancement and new constructs (pp. 6184). New York: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Campbell, F. A., & Ramey, C. T. (1994). Effects of early intervention on intellectual and academic achievement: A follow-up study of children from low-income families. Child Development, 65, 684698.Google Scholar
Campbell, F. A., & Ramey, C. T. (1995). Cognitive and school outcomes for high-risk African-American students at middle adolescence: Positive effects of early intervention. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 743772.Google Scholar
Campbell, F. A., Ramey, C. T., Pungello, E., Sparling, J., & Miller-Johnson, S. (2002). Early childhood education: Young adult outcomes from the Abecedarian Project. Applied Developmental Science, 6, 4257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caplan, N., Choy, M. H., & Whitmore, J. K. (1992). Indochinese refugee families and academic achievement. Scientific American, 266(2), 3642.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cattell, R. B. (1943). The measurement of adult intelligence. Psychological Bulletin, 40, 153193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cattell, R. B. (1963). Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence: A critical experiment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 54, 122.Google Scholar
Cattell, R. B. (1971). Abilities: Their structure, growth, and action. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Cattell, R. B., & Cattell, A. K. S. (1961). Culture Fair Intelligence Test (Scale 2, Forms A & B). Champaign, IL: Institute for Personality and Ability Testing.Google Scholar
Ceci, S. J. (1991). How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components? A reassessment of the evidence. Developmental Psychology, 27, 703722.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ceci, S. J., & Williams, W. M. (1997). Schooling, intelligence and income. American Psychologist, 52, 10511058.Google Scholar
Chance, P. (1986). Thinking in the classroom. New York: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
Charlton, B. (2009). Clever sillies: Why high IQ people tend to be deficient in common sense. Medical Hypotheses, 73, 867870.Google Scholar
Chen, C., & Stevenson, H. W. (1995). Motivation and mathematics achievement: A comparative study of Asian-American, Caucasian-American and East Asian high school students. Child Development, 66, 12151234.Google Scholar
Cheng, P. W., & Holyoak, K. J. (1985). Pragmatic reasoning schemas. Cognitive Psychology, 17, 391416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cho, S. H., te Nijenhuis, J., van Vianen, A. E., Kim, H.-B., & Lee, K. H. (2010). The relationship between diverse components of intelligence and creativityJournal of Creative Behavior, 44, 125137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chooi, W. T., & Thompson, L. A. (2012). Working memory training does not improve intelligence in healthy young adults. Intelligence, 40, 531542.Google Scholar
Clarke, S. H., & Campbell, F. A. (1998). Can intervention early prevent crime later? The Abecedarian Project compared with other programs. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 13, 31343.Google Scholar
Clouston, S. A., Kuh, D., Herd, P., Elliott, J., Richards, M., & Hofer, S. M. (2012). Benefits of educational attainment on adult fluid cognition: International evidence from three birth cohorts. International Journal of Epidemiology, 41, 17291736.Google Scholar
Colombo, J. (1993). Infant cognition: Predicting later intellectual functioning. Newberry Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Covington, M. V., Crutchfield, R. S., Davies, L., & Olton, R. M. (1974). The productive thinking program: A course in learning to think. Columbus, OH: Merrill.Google Scholar
Crane, J., & Barg, M. (2003). Do early childhood intervention programs really work? Coalition for Evidence-Based Policy. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/90f5/fe541b5641037518041e66fe6b5af6d4a51a.pdfGoogle Scholar
Daniel, V. (2016). Does the intelligence of populations determine the wealth of nations? Journal of Socio-Economics, 46, 2737.Google Scholar
Daugherty, A. M., Zwilling, C., Paul, E. J., Sherepa, N., Allen, C., Kramer, A. F., et al. (2018). Multi-modal fitness and cognitive training to enhance fluid intelligence. Intelligence, 66, 3243.Google Scholar
Davies, N. M., Dickson, M., Davey Smith, G., van den Berg, G. J., & Windmeijer, F. (2018). The causal effects of education on health outcomes in the UK Biobank. Nature Human Behaviour, 2, 117125.Google Scholar
Deary, I. J. (2000). Looking down on human intelligence: From psychometrics to the brain. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Deary, I. J. (2001). Intelligence: A very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Deary, I. J. (2012a). Intelligence. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 453482.Google Scholar
Deary, I. J. (2012b). 125 years of intelligence in the American Journal of Psychology. American Journal of Psychology, 125, 145154.Google Scholar
Deary, I. J. (2013). Intelligence. Current Biology, 23, 673676.Google Scholar
Deary, I. J. (2014). Teaching intelligence. Intelligence, 42, 142147.Google Scholar
Deary, I. J., Strand, S., Smith, P., & Fernandes, C. (2007). Intelligence and educational achievement. Intelligence, 35, 1321.Google Scholar
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Detterman, D. K. (2014a). Introduction to the intelligence special issue on the development of expertise: Is ability necessary? Intelligence, 45, 15.Google Scholar
Detterman, D. K. (2014b). You should be teaching intelligence! Intelligence, 42, 148151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Detterman, D. K., & Sternberg, R. J. (Eds.) (1982). How and how much can intelligence be increased? Norwood, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Dickstein, L. S. (1975). Effects of instructions and premise ordering errors in syllogistic reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 104, 376384.Google Scholar
Dillon, J. T. (1988). The remedial status of student questioning. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 20, 197210.Google Scholar
Duckworth, A. L., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2005). Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents. Psychological Science, 16, 939944.Google Scholar
Duncan, J. Seitz, R., Kolodny, J.Bor, D., Herzog, H., & Ahmed, A. (2000). A neural basis for general intelligence. Science289, 457460.Google Scholar
Dweck, C. S. (1999). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality and development. Philadelphia: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Ehrenberg, S. D., & Ehrenberg, L. M. (1982). BASICS: Building and applying strategies for intellectual competencies in students. Coshocton, OH: Institute for Curriculum and Instruction.Google Scholar
Ennis, R. H. (1986). A taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities. In Baron, J. B. & Sternberg, R. S. (Eds.), Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice (pp. 926). New York: Freeman.Google Scholar
Ericsson, K. A. (2007). Deliberate practice and the modifiability of body and mind: Toward a science of the structure and acquisition of expert and elite performance. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 38, 434.Google Scholar
Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363406.Google Scholar
Ericsson, K. A., Prietula, M. J., & Cokely, E. T. (2007). The making of an expert. Harvard Business Review, 85, 114121.Google Scholar
Evans, J. St. B. T. (1989). Bias in human reasoning: Causes and consequences. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Fagan, J. F. (2011). Intelligence in infancy. In Sternberg, R. J. & Kaufman, S. B. (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Feuerstein, R., Rand, Y., Hoffman, M., & Miller, R. (1980). Instrumental enrichment. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.Google Scholar
Flavell, J. H. (1981). Cognitive monitoring. In Dickson, W. P. (Ed.), Children’s oral communication skills. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Flynn, J. R. (1984). The mean IQ of Americans: Massive gains 1932 to 1978. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 2951.Google Scholar
Flynn, J. R. (1987). Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 171191.Google Scholar
Flynn, J. R. (2007). What is intelligence? Beyond the Flynn effect. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fong, G. T., Krantz, D. H., & Nisbett, R. E. (1986). The effects of statistical training on thinking about everyday problems. Cognitive Psychology, 18, 235292.Google Scholar
Gage, F. H. (2003). Brain, repair yourself. Scientific American, 289(3), 4653.Google Scholar
Gagne, R. M. (1967). Science – A process approach: Purposes, accomplishments, expectations. Washington: American Association for the Advancement of Science.Google Scholar
Gale, C. R., Batty, G. D., Osborn, D. P., Tynelius, P., Whitley, E., Rasmussen, F. (2012). Association of mental disorders in early adulthood and later psychiatric hospital admissions and mortality in a cohort study of more than 1 million men. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69, 823831.Google Scholar
Garber, H. L. (1988). The Milwaukee Project: Preventing mental retardation in children at risk. Washington: American Association on Mental Retardation.Google Scholar
Gardner, H. (1995). “Expert performance: Its structure and acquisition”: Comment. American Psychologist, 50, 802803.Google Scholar
Gardner, H. (2011). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Gardner, H., Krechevsky, M., Sternberg, R. J., & Okagaki, L. (1994). Intelligence in context: Enhancing students’ practical intelligence for school. In McGilly, K. (Ed.), Classroom lessons: Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp. 105127). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Geary, D. C. (1996). Biology, culture, and cross-national differences in mathematical ability. In Sternberg, R. J. & Ben-Zeev, T. (Eds.), The nature of mathematical thinking (pp. 145171). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Gottfredson, L. S. (1997). Why g matters: The complexity of everyday life. Intelligence, 24, 79132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gray, J. R., & Thompson, P. M. (2004). Neurobiology of intelligence: Science and ethics. Nature Reviews Neuroscience5471482.Google Scholar
Greenwood, P. M. (2007). Functional plasticity in cognitive aging: Review and hypothesis. Neuropsychology, 21, 657673.Google Scholar
Greenwood, P. M., & Parasuraman, R. (2015). The mechanisms of far transfer from cognitive training: Review and hypothesis. Neuropsychology, 30(6), 742755.Google Scholar
Haier, R. J. (2014). The universe, dark matter, and streaming intelligence. Intelligence, 42, 152155.Google Scholar
Haimovitz, K., Wormington, S. V., & Corpus, J. H. (2011). Dangerous mindsets: How beliefs about intelligence predict motivational change. Learning and individual differences, 21, 747752.Google Scholar
Hambrick, D. Z., Oswald, F. L., Altman, E. M., Meinz, E. J., Gobet, F., & Campitelli, G. (2014). Deliberate practice: Is that all it takes to become an expert? Intelligence, 45, 3445.Google Scholar
Hammond, S. I., Müller, U., Carpendale, J. I., Bibok, M. B., & Liebermann-Finestone, D. P. (2012). The effects of parental scaffolding on preschoolers’ executive function. Developmental Psychology, 48, 271281.Google Scholar
Hansen, K. T., Heckman, J. J., Mullen, K. J. (2004). The effect of schooling and ability on achievement test scores. Journal of Econometrics, 121, 3998.Google Scholar
Harrison, T. L., Shipstead, Z., Hicks, K. L., Hambrick, D. Z., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2013). Working memory training may increase working memory capacity but not fluid intelligence. Psychological Science, 24, 24092419.Google Scholar
Harvard University (1983). Project Intelligence: The development of procedures to enhance thinking skills. Final report, submitted to the Minister for the Development of Human Intelligence, Republic of Venezuela, October.Google Scholar
Hayes, T. R., Petrov, A., & Sederberg, P. B. (2015). Do we really become smarter when our fluid-intelligence test scores improve? Intelligence, 48, 114.Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J., Nickerson, R. S., Sanchez, M, & Swets, J. A. (1986). Teaching thinking skills. American Psychologist, 41, 12791289.Google Scholar
Hertzog, C., Kramer, A. F., Wilson, R. S., & Lindenberg, U. (2009). Enrichment effects on adult cognitive development. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9, 165.Google Scholar
Heyman, G. D., & Dweck, C. S. (1998). Children’s thinking about traits: Implications for judgments of the self and others. Child Development, 64, 391403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hong, Y. Y., Chiu, C., Dweck, C. S., Lin, D., & Wan, W. (1999). Implicit theories, attributions, and coping: A meaning system approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 588599.Google Scholar
Honzik, M. P., Macfarlane, J. W., & Allen, L. (1948). The stability of mental test performance between two and eighteen years. Journal of Experimental Education, 17, 309324.Google Scholar
Horacek, H. J., Ramey, C. T., Campbell, F. A., Hoffmann, K., & Fletcher, R. H. (1987). Predicting school failure and assessing early intervention with high-risk children. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26(1987), 758763.Google Scholar
Hultsch, D. F., Hertzog, C., Small, B. J., & Dixon, R. A. (1999). Use it or lose it: Engaged lifestyle as a buffer of cognitive decline in aging? Psychology of Aging, 14, 245263.Google Scholar
Hunt, E. (2011). Human intelligence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hunt, E. (2014). Teaching intelligence: Why, why it is hard and perhaps how to do it. Intelligence, 42, 156165.Google Scholar
Hunter, J. E. (1986). Cognitive ability, cognitive aptitudes, job knowledge, and job performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29, 340362.Google Scholar
Jak, A. J. (2011). The impact of physical and mental activity on cognitive aging. In Pardon, M.-C. & Bondi, M. W. (Eds.), Behavioral neurobiology of aging (pp. 273291). Berlin: Springer.Google Scholar
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Perrig, W. J. (2008). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105, 68296833.Google Scholar
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Shah, P. (2011). Short- and long-term benefits of cognitive training and transfer. Memory and Cognition, 42, 464480.Google Scholar
Jauk, E., Benedek, M., Dunst, B., & Neubauer, A. C. (2013). The relationship between intelligence and creativity: New support for the threshold hypothesis by means of empirical breakpoint detection. Intelligence, 41, 212221.Google Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1998). The g factor. Westport, CT: Praeger.Google Scholar
Jones, B. F., Palincsar, A. S., Ogle, D. S., & Carr, E. G. (1987). Learning and thinking. In Jones, B. F., Palincsar, A. S., Ogle, D. S., & Carr, E. G. (Eds.), Strategic teaching and learning: Cognitive instruction in the content areas (pp. 332). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.Google Scholar
Jones, G., & Schneider, W. (2006). Intelligence, human capital, and economic growth: A Bayesian averaging of classical estimates (BACE) approach. Journal of Economic Growth1, 7193.Google Scholar
Kanyama, I. K. (2014). Quality of institutions: Does intelligence matter? Intelligence, 42, 4452.Google Scholar
Kaufman, J. C., & Plucker, J. A. (2011). Intelligence and creativity. In Sternberg, R. J., & Kaufman, S. B. (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of intelligence (pp. 771783). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Keith, Z. K., & Reynolds, M. (2010). Cattell-Horn-Carroll abilities and cognitive tests: What we’ve learned from 20 years of research. Psychology in the Schools, 47, 635650.Google Scholar
Kim, K. H. (2005). Can only intelligent people be creative? Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 24, 5766.Google Scholar
Klausmeier, H. J. (1980). Learning and teaching concepts – A strategy for testing applications of theory. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Klemp, G. O. Jr., & McClelland, D. C. (1986). What characterizes intelligent functioning among senior managers? In Sternberg, R. J. & Wagner, R. K. (Eds.), Practical intelligence: Nature and origins of competence in the everyday world (pp. 3150). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kosonen, P., & Winne, P. H. (1995). Effects of teaching statistical laws on reasoning about everyday problems. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 3346.Google Scholar
Krueger, J. (2000). Individual differences and Pearson’s r: Rationality revealed? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23, 684685.Google Scholar
Lally, J. R., Mangione, P. L., & Honig, A. S. (1998). The Syracuse University Family Development Research Project: Long-range impact of an early intervention with low-income children and their families. In Powell, D. R. (Ed.), Annual advances in applied developmental psychology, vol. 3, Parent education as early childhood intervention: Emerging directions in theory, research, and practice. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Larkin, J. H., McDermott, J., Simon, D. P., & Simon, H. A. (1980). Expert and novice performance in solving physics problems. Science, 208, 13351342.Google Scholar
Lazar, I., & Darlington, R. (1982). Lasting effects of early education: A report from the Consortium for Longitudinal Studies. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 47(2–3), 1151.Google Scholar
Lee, V. E., & Loeb, S. (1994). Where do Head Start attendees end up? One reason why preschool effects fade out. ED368510. Available from the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC).Google Scholar
Lewis, M. (1973). Infant intelligence tests: Their use and misuse. Human Development, 16, 108118.Google Scholar
Lynn, R. (2012). IQs predict differences in the technological development of nations from 1000 BC through 2000 AD. Intelligence, 40, 439444.Google Scholar
Lynn, R., & Vanhanen, T. (2012). National IQs: A review of their educational, cognitive, economic, political, demographic, sociological, epidemiological, geographic and climatic correlates. Intelligence, 2, 226234.Google Scholar
Machado, L. A. (1980). The right to be intelligent. New York: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Mackintosh, N. J. (2011). IQ and human intelligence (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mackintosh, N. J. (2014). Why teach intelligence? Intelligence, 42, 166170.Google Scholar
Manuel, H. T. (1962). Tests of general ability: Inter-American series (Spanish, Level 4, Forms A & B). San Antonio, TX: Guidance Testing Associates.Google Scholar
Martin, S. L., Ramey, C. T., & Ramey, S. (1990). The prevention of intellectual impairment in children of impoverished families: Findings of a randomized trial of educational day care. American Journal of Public Health, 80, 844847.Google Scholar
McCall, R. B., Appelbaum, M. I., & Hogarty, P. S. (1973). Developmental changes in mental performance. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 42(3), 184).Google Scholar
McKay, R. H., Condelli, L., Ganson, H., Barnett, B. J., McCouley, C., & Plantz., M. C. (1985). The impact of Head Start on children, families and communities: Final report of the Head Start Evaluation, Synthesis and Utilization Project. Washington: US Department of Health and Human Services.Google Scholar
Meeker, M. N. (1969). The structure of intellect: Its interpretation and uses. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.Google Scholar
Meisenberg, G., & Lynn, R. (2011). Intelligence: A measure of human capital in nations. Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies, 36, 421454.Google Scholar
Melby-Lervåg̊, M., & Hulme, C.(2013). Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review. Developmental Psychology, 49, 270291.Google Scholar
Millar, G. (1992). Developing student questioning skills – A handbook of tips and strategies for teachers. Bensenville, IL: Scholastic Testing Service.Google Scholar
Mueller, C. W., & Dweck, C. S. (1998). Praise for intelligence can undermine children’s motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 3352.Google Scholar
National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform. www.edreform.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/A_Nation_At_Risk_1983.pdfGoogle Scholar
Neisser, U. (1997). Rising scores on intelligence tests. American Scientist, 85, 440447.Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (Ed.) (1998). The rising curve: Long-term gains in IQ and related measures. Washington: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., & Ceci, S. J. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist, 51, 77101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nickerson, R. S. (1980). Retrieval efficiency, knowledge assessment and age: Comments on some welcome findings. In Poon, L. W., Fozard, J. L., Cermak, L. S., Arenberg, D., & Thompson, L. W. (Eds.), New directions in memory and aging: Proceedings of the George A. Talland Memorial Conference (pp. 355366). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Nickerson, R. S. (1987). Project Intelligence: An Account and some reflections. Special Services in the Schools, 3(1–2), 83102.Google Scholar
Nickerson, R. S. (1988/1989). On improving thinking through instruction. In Rothkopf, E. Z. (Ed.), Review of research in education (vol. 15, pp. 358). Washington: American Educational Research Association.Google Scholar
Nickerson, R. S. (1994). The teaching of thinking and problem solving. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Thinking and problem solving, vol. 12, Handbook of perception and cognition (pp. 409449). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2, 175220.Google Scholar
Nickerson, R. S. (2004). Teaching reasoning. In Leighton, J. P. & Sternberg, R. J. (Eds.), The nature of reasoning (pp. 410442). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Nickerson, R. S. (2011). Developing intelligence through instruction. In Sternberg, R. J. & Kaufman, S. B. (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of intelligence (pp. 107129). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Nickerson, R. S., Butler, S. F., & Barch, D. H. (in press). Validity and persuasiveness of conditional arguments. American Journal of Psychology.Google Scholar
Nickerson, R. S., Perkins, D. N., & Smith, E. E. (1985). The teaching of thinking. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Nisbett, R. E. (2009). Intelligence and how to get it: Why schools and cultures count. New York: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
Nottebohm, F. (2002). Why are some neurons replaced in adult brains? Journal of Neuroscience, 22, 624628.Google Scholar
Nusbaum, E. C., & Silvia, P. (2011). Are intelligence and creativity really so different? Fluid intelligence, executive processes, and strategy use in divergent thinking. Intelligence, 39, 3645.Google Scholar
Olds, D., Henderson, C. R. Jr., Cole, R., Eckenrode, J., Kitzman, H., Luckey, D., et al. (1998). Long-term effects of nurse home visitation on children’s criminal and antisocial behavior: 15-year follow-up of a randomized trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 280(14), 12381244.Google Scholar
Otis, A. S., & Lennon, R. T. (1977). Otis-Lennon School Ability Test (Intermediate Level 1, Form R). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.Google Scholar
Ott, A., van Rossum, C. T., van Harskamp, F., van de Mheen, H., Hofman, A., & Breteler, M. M. (1999). Education and the incidence of dementia in a large population-based study: The Rotterdam study. Neurology, 52, 663666.Google Scholar
Papageorgiou, E., Christou, C., Spanoudis, G., & Demetriou, A. (2016). Augmenting intelligence: Developmental limits to learning-based cognitive change. Intelligence, 56, 1627.Google Scholar
Pardon, M.-C., & Bondi, M. W. (Eds.) (2011) Behavioral neurobiology of aging. Berlin: Springer.Google Scholar
Paris, S. G., Lipson, M. Y., & Wixson, K. K. (1983). Becoming a strategic reader. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 8, 293316.Google Scholar
Park, D. C., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. (2009). The adaptive brain: Aging and neurocognitive scaffolding. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 173196.Google Scholar
Payne, J. E., Mercer, C. D., Payne, A., & Davison, R. G. (1973). Head Start: A tragicomedy with epilogue. New York: Behavioral Publications.Google Scholar
Perkins, D. N. (1995). Outsmarting IQ: The emerging science of learnable intelligence. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Piattelli-Palmarini, M. (1994). Inevitable illusions: How mistakes of reason rule our minds. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Plomin, R., & DeFries, J. C. (1998). Genetics of cognitive abilities and disabilities. Scientific American, 275(5), 6269.Google Scholar
Plomin, R., Pedersen, N. L., Lichtenstein, P., & McClearn, G. E. (1994). Variability and stability in cognitive abilities are largely genetic later in life. Behavior Genetics, 24, 207215.Google Scholar
Ramey, C. T., Bryant, D. M., & Suarez, T. M. (1985). Preschool compensatory education and the modifiability of intelligence: A critical review. In Detterman, D. K. (Ed.), Current topics in human intelligence, vol. 1, Research methodology (pp. 247296). Westport, CT: Ablex Publishing.Google Scholar
Ramey, C. T., & Campbell, F. A. (1984). Preventive education for high-risk children: Cognitive consequences of the Carolina abecedarian project. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 88, 515523.Google Scholar
Ramey, C. T., & Campbell, F. A. (1994). Poverty, early childhood education, and academic competence: The Abecedarian experiment. In Huston, A. C. (Ed.), Children in poverty: Child development and public policy (pp. 190221). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Reynolds, A. J. (1998). The Chicago Child-Parent Center and Expansion Program: A study of extended early childhood intervention. In Crane, Jonathan (Ed.), Social programs that work (pp. 110147). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Resnick, L. B. (1987). Education and learning to think. Washington: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
Rindermann, H., & Becker, D. (2018). Flynn-effect and economic growth: Do national increases in intelligence lead to increases in GDP?. Intelligence, 69, 8793.Google Scholar
Rips, L. J., & Conrad, F. G. (1983). Individual differences in deduction. Cognition and Brain Theory, 6, 259285.Google Scholar
Ritchie, S. J., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2018). How much does education improve intelligence? A meta-analysis. Psychological Science, 29, 13581369.Google Scholar
Ross, L., Greene, D., & House, P. (1977). The false consensus phenomenon: An attributional bias in self-perception and social perception processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 279301.Google Scholar
Roth, B., Becker, N., Romeyke, S., Schäfer, S., Domnick, F., & Spinath, F. M. (2015). Intelligence and school grades: A meta-analysis. Intelligence, 53, 118137.Google Scholar
Rubenstein, M. F. (1975). Patterns of problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Salthouse, T. A. (2015). Do cognitive interventions alter the rate of age-related cognitive change? Intelligence, 53, 8691.Google Scholar
Sanders, J. R., & Sonnad, S. R. ( 1982). Research on the introduction, use and impact of the ThinkAbout instructional television series: Executive summary. Agency for Instructional Television, January.Google Scholar
Scarmeas, N., Levy, G., Tang, M. X., Manly, J., Stern, Y. (2001). Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology, 57, 22362242.Google Scholar
Schipolowski, S., Wilhelm, O., & Schroeders, U. (2014). On the nature of crystalized intelligence: The relationship between verbal ability and factual knowledge. Intelligence, 46, 156168.Google Scholar
Schneider, W., Niklas, F., & Schmiedeler, S. (2014). Intellectual development from early childhood to early adulthood: The impact of early IQ differences on stability and change over time. Learning and Individual Differences, 32, 156162.Google Scholar
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1985). Mathematical problem solving. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Schwartzman, A. E., Gold, D., Andres, D., Arbuckle, T. Y., & Chaikelson, J. (1987). Stability of intelligence: A 40-year follow-up. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 41, 244256.Google Scholar
Schweinhart, L. J., Montie, J., Xiang, Z., Barnett, W. S., Belfield, C. R., & Nores, M. (2005). Lifetime effects: The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study through age 40. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Foundation.Google Scholar
Seeman, T. E., McAvay, G., Merrill, S., Albert, M., & Rodin, J. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs and changes in cognitive performance: MacArthur studies of successful aging. Psychology and Aging, 11, 538551.Google Scholar
Shipstead, Z., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2012). Is working memory training effective? Psychological Bulletin, 138, 628654.Google Scholar
Sigel, I. E. (1973). Where is preschool education going: Or are we en route without a road map? Proceedings of the 1972 Invitational Conference on Testing Problems: Assessment in a pluralistic society (pp. 99116). Princeton: Educational Testing Service.Google Scholar
Squalli, J., & Wilson, K. (2014). Intelligence, creativity, and innovation. Intelligence, 46, 250257.Google Scholar
Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 360407.Google Scholar
Stanovich, K. E. (1994). Reconceptualizing intelligence: Dysrationalia as an intuition pump. Educational Researcher, 23, 1122.Google Scholar
Stanovich, K. E. (1999). Who is rational? Studies of individual differences in reasoning. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. (2008). On the failure of cognitive ability to predict myside bias and one-sided thinking biases. Thinking and Reasoning, 14, 129167.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1986). Intelligence applied: Understanding and increasing your intellectual skills. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2012). Intelligence. Dialogs in Clinical Neuroscience, 14, 1427.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2014). Teaching about the nature of intelligence. Intelligence, 42, 176179.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2007). Teaching for successful intelligence (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., Jarvin, L., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2011). Explorations of the nature of giftedness. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., & Wagner, R. K. (Eds.) (1986). Practical intelligence: Nature and origins of competence in the everyday world. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Stevenson., H. W., Chen, C., & Lee, S-Y. (1993). Mathematics achievement of Chinese, Japanese, and American children: Ten years later. Science, 259, 5358.Google Scholar
Stevenson, H. W., Lee, S. Y., & Stigler, J. W. (1986). Mathematics achievement of Chinese, Japanese, and American children. Science, 231, 693699.Google Scholar
Swartz, R. J. (1991). Structured teaching for critical thinking and reasoning in standard subject area instruction. In Voss, J. F., Perkins, D. N., & Segal, J. W. (Eds.), Informal reasoning and education (pp. 415450). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Swets, J. A., Herrnstein, R. J., Nickerson, R. S., & Getty, D. J. (1988). Design and evaluation issues in an experiment on teaching thinking skills. American Psychologist, 43, 600602.Google Scholar
Thorell, L. B., Lindqvist, S., Bergman, S., Bholin, G., & Klingberg, T. (2008). Training and transfer effects of executive functions in preschool children. Developmental Science, 11, 969976.Google Scholar
Tourva, A., Spanoudis, G., & Demetriou, A. (2016). Cognitive correlates of developing intelligence: The contribution of working memory, processing speed and attention. Intelligence, 54, 136146.Google Scholar
Tsang, S. L. (1988). The mathematics achievement characteristics of Asian-American students. In Cocking, R. R. & Mestre, J. P. (Eds.), Linguistic and cultural influences on learning mathematics (pp. 123136). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Valenzuela, M. J., Breakspear, M., & Sackdev, P. (2007). Complex mental activity and the aging brain: Molecular, cellular and cortical network mechanisms. Brain Research Reviews, 56, 198213.Google Scholar
Valenzuela, M. J., Sachdev, P., Wen, W., Chen, X., & Brodaty, H. (2008). Lifespan mental activity predicts diminished rate of hippocampal atrophy. PLoS One. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002598Google Scholar
Verghese, J., Wang, C., Katz, M. J., Sanders, A., & Lipton, R. B. (2009). Leisure activities and risk of vascular cognitive impairment in older adults. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 22, 110118.Google Scholar
Verhaeghen, P., Cerella, J., & Basak, C. (2004). A working memory workout: How to expand the focus of serial attention from one to four items in 10 hours or less. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, 13221337.Google Scholar
Wai, J. (2013). Investigating America’s elite: Cognitive ability, education, and sex differences. Intelligence, 41, 203211.Google Scholar
Wai, J. (2014). Investigating the world’s rich and powerful. Intelligence, 46, 5472.Google Scholar
Wai, J., & Nisen, M. (2013). The 25 countries with the most brainpower. Business Insider. www.businessinsider.com/countries-with-the-most-brainpower-2013-10?r=US&IR=TGoogle Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1981). WAIS-R manual: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Revised. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Weinert, F. E. (1987). Introduction and overview: Metacognition and motivation as determinants of effective learning and understanding. In Weinert, F. & Kluwe, R. (Eds.), Metacognition, motivation, and understanding (pp. 116). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Wickelgren, W. A. (1974). How to solve problems. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.Google Scholar
Williams, R. L. (2013). Overview of the Flynn effect. Intelligence, 41, 753764.Google Scholar
Wrar, C., Deary, I. J., Gale, C. R., & Der, G. (2015). Intelligence in youth and health at 50. Intelligence, 53, 2332.Google Scholar
Wrulich, M., Brunner, M., Stadler, G., Schalke, D., Keller, U., & Martin, R. (2014). Forty years on: Childhood intelligence predicts health in middle adulthood. Health Psychology, 33, 292296.Google Scholar
Yang, B., & Lester, D. (2016). Regional differences in intelligence and economic activity: A brief note. Intelligence, 54, 3336.Google Scholar
Yu, H., McCoach, D. B., Gottfried, A. W., & Gottfried, A. K. (2018). Stability of intelligence from infancy through adolescence: An autoregressive latent variable model. Intelligence, 69, 815.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×