Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T18:31:18.588Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

3 - Extra-Pair Sexual Interest

from Part I - Precopulatory Adaptations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 June 2022

Todd K. Shackelford
Affiliation:
Oakland University, Michigan
Get access

Summary

Extrapair sex, although not a dominant human mating strategy, has been a part of our mating landscape throughout human history. Although prevalence rates vary across studies, a conservative estimate is that at least 1 out of 5 persons have cheated on a committed partner. In this chapter I discuss theories and evidence addressing extrapair interest and behavior (i.e., cheating on a committed partner) as produced by adaptations. Topics include the costs and benefits of extrapair behavior, comparisons to nonhuman animal extrapair behavior, sex differences, and purported female cyclical variations in extrapair orientation. I briefly discuss proximate factors that predict proclivity to cheat. I also touch on infidelity advertisement, cheating detection, forgiving a partner’s infidelity, and infidelity in popular culture. I conclude with some observations about the state of the field. Regardless of causes and correlates, infidelity can be costly, yet humans remain interested in and intrigued by the phenomenon.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allen, E. S., Rhoades, G. K., Stanley, S. M., Markman, H. J., Williams, T., Melton, J., … & Clements, M. L. (2008). Premarital precursors of marital infidelity. Family Processes, 47(2), 243259. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.2008.00251.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Altgelt, E. E., Reyes, M. A., French, J. E., Meltzer, A. L., & McNulty, J. K. (2018). Who is sexually faithful? Own and partner personality traits as predictors of infidelity. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 35(4), 600614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407517743085CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amanatodou, E., Matthews, A. C., Kuhlicke, U., Neu, T. R., McEvoy, J. P., & Raymond, B. (2019). Biofilms facilitate cheating and social exploitation of β-lactam resistance in Escherichia coli. npj Biofilms and Microbiomes, 5, 36. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41522–019-0109-2Google Scholar
Andrews, P. W., Gangestad, S. W., Miller, G. F., Haselton, M. G., Thornhill, R., & Neale, M. C. (2008). Sex differences in detecting sexual infidelity: Results of a maximum likelihood method for analyzing the sensitivity of sex differences to underreporting. Human Nature, 19(4), 347373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110–008-9051-3Google Scholar
Apostolou, M. (2019). Why Greek-Cypriots cheat? The evolutionary origins of the Big-Five of infidelity. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, 13(1), 7183. https://doi.org/10.1037/ebs0000140Google Scholar
Apostolou, M., & Demosthenous, A. (2020). Why people forgive their intimate partners’ infidelity: A taxonomy of reasons. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40750–020-00153-1Google Scholar
Apostolou, M., & Panayiotou, R. (2019). The reasons that prevent people from cheating on their partners: An evolutionary account of the propensity not to cheat. Personality and Individual Differences, 146, 3440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.03.041CrossRefGoogle Scholar
AshleyMadison.com. (2020). Ashley Madison. Retrieved from www.ashleymadison.com/Google Scholar
Baker, R. R., & Bellis, M. A. (1995). Human sperm competition: Copulation, masturbation, and infidelity. Norwell, MA: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Barbaro, N., Pham, M. N., & Shackelford, T. K. (2015). Solving the problem of partner infidelity: Individual mate retention, coalitional mate retention, and in-pair copulation frequency. Personality and Individual Differences, 82, 6771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.02.033Google Scholar
Barbaro, N., Shackelford, T. K., Holub, A. M., Jeffery, A. J., Lopes, G. S., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2019). Life history correlates of human (Homo sapiens) ejaculate quality. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 133(3), 294300. https://doi.org/10.1037/com0000161CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bogaert, A. F., & Sadava, S. (2002). Adult attachment and sexual behavior. Personal Relationships, 9(2), 191204. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6811.00012Google Scholar
Brand, R. J., Markey, C. M., Mills, A., & Hodges, S. D. (2007). Sex differences in self-reported infidelity and its correlates. Sex Roles, 57(1–2), 101109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199–007-9221-5Google Scholar
Burch, R. L., & Gallup, G. G. Jr. (2020). Abusive men are driven by paternal uncertainty. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, 14(2), 197209. https://doi.org/10.1037/ebs0000163Google Scholar
Burris, R. P., & Little, A. C. (2006). Effects of partner conception risk phase on male perception of dominance in faces. Evolution and Human Behavior, 27(4), 297305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2006.01.002Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (2000). The dangerous passion: Why jealousy is as necessary as love and sex. New York, NY: The Free PressGoogle Scholar
Buss, D. M. (2007). The evolution of human mating. Acta Psychologia Sinica, 39(3), 502512. https://doi.org/10.1177/147470490800600116Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (2016). The evolution of desire: Strategies of human mating (Revised and updated edition). New York, NY: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (2018). Sexual and emotional infidelity: Evolved gender differences in jealousy prove robust and replicable. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(2), 155160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617698225Google Scholar
Buss, D. M., Durkee, P. K., Shackelford, T. K., Bowdle, B. F., Schmitt, D. P., Brase, G. L., … & Trofimova, I. (2020). Human status criteria: Sex differences and similarities across 14 nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(5), 979998. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000206CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buss, D. M., Goetz, C., Duntley, J. D., Asao, K., & Conroy-Beam, D. (2017). The mate switching hypothesis. Personality and Individual Differences, 104, 143149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.07.022CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buss, D. M., Larsen, R. J., Westen, D., & Semmelroth, J. (1992). Sex differences in jealousy: Evolution, physiology, and psychology. Psychological Science, 3(4), 251255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00038.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review, 100(2), 204232. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.100.2.204Google Scholar
Buunk, B. P., & Bakker, A. B. (1995). Extradyadic sex: The role of descriptive and injunctive norms. Journal of Sex Research, 32(4), 313318. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499509551804Google Scholar
Cantú, S. M., Simpson, J. A., Griskevicius, V., Weisberg, Y. J., Durante, K. M., & Beal, D. J. (2014). Fertile and selectively flirty: Women’s behavior toward men changes across the ovulatory cycle. Psychological Science, 25(2), 431438. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613508413CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Confer, J. C., & Cloud, M. D. (2011). Sex differences in response to imagining a partner’s heterosexual or homosexual affair. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(2), 129134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.007Google Scholar
Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (1987). From evolution to behavior: Evolutionary psychology as the missing link. In Dupre, J. (Ed.), The latest on the best: Essays on evolution and optimality (pp. 277306). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Daly, M., & Wilson, M. (1988). Homicide. Hawthorne, NJ: Aldine de Gruyter.Google ScholarPubMed
Dawkins, R. (1989). The selfish gene, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Del Corral, M. (2015). Why do people keep their promises? An overview of strategic commitment. Cuadernos de Economía, 34(65), 237259. https://doi.org/10.15446/cuad.econ.v34n65.40511Google Scholar
Dias, R. I., Salles, P., & Macedo, R. H. (2009). Mate guarding and searching for extra-pair copulations: Decision-making when interests diverge. Ecological Informatics, 4(5–6), 405412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoinf.2009.09.008Google Scholar
Dixson, A. F. (2009a). Book review: The evolutionary biology of human female sexuality. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38(6), 10671069. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508–009-9584-5Google Scholar
Dixson, A. F. (2009b). Sexual selection and the origins of human mating systems. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Doffman, Z. (2019). Ashley Madison has signed 30 million cheating spouses. Again. Has anything changed? Forbes. Retrieved from www.forbes.com/sites/zakdoffman/2019/08/23/ashley-madison-is-back-with-30-million-cheating-spouses-signed-since-the-hack/?sh=34c5833c3878Google Scholar
Drigotas, S. M., & Barta, W. (2001). The cheating heart: Scientific explorations of infidelity. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(5), 177180. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00143Google Scholar
Drummond, H., Ramos, A. G., Sánchez-Macouzet, O., & Rodríguez, C. (2016). An unsuspected cost of mate familiarity: Increased loss of paternity. Animal Behaviour, 111, 213216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2015.10.019Google Scholar
Duntley, J. D., & Buss, D. M. (2011). Homicide adaptations. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16(5), 399410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2011.04.016Google Scholar
ESHRE Capri Workshop Group. (2010). Europe the continent with the lowest fertility. Human Reproduction Update, 16(6), 590602. https://doi.org/10.1093/humupd/dmq023Google Scholar
Ellis, B. J., Figueredo, A. J., Brumbach, B. H., & Schlomer, G. L. (2009). Fundamental dimensions of environmental risk: The impact of harsh versus unpredictable environments on the evolution and development of life history strategies. Human Nature, 20(2), 204268. doi:10.1007/s12110-009-9063-7Google Scholar
Ein-Dor, T., Perry-Paldi, A., Hirschberger, G., Birnbaum, G. E., & Deutsch, D. (2015). Coping with mate poaching: Gender differences in detection of infidelity-related threats. Evolution and Human Behavior, 36(1), 1724. http://doi-org-443.webvpn.fjmu.edu.cn/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.08.002Google Scholar
Figueredo, A. J., Wolf, P. S. A., Olderbak, S. G., Gladden, P. R., Fernandes, H. B., Wenner, C., … & Rushton, J. P. (2014). The psychometric assessment of human life history strategy: A meta-analytic construct validation. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, 8(3), 148185. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0099837Google Scholar
Fish, J. N., Pavkov, T. W., Wetchler, J. L., & Bercik, J. (2012). Characteristics of those who participate in infidelity: The role of adult attachment and differentiation in extradyadic experiences. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 40(3), 214229. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2011.601192Google Scholar
Fisher, H. E. (1989). Evolution of human serial pairbonding. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 78(3), 331354. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330780303CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, H. E (1992). Anatomy of love: The natural history of monogamy, adultery, and divorce. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.Google Scholar
Fisher, H. E. (2006). The drive to love: The neural mechanism for mate choice. In Sternberg, J. R. & Barnes, M. L. (Eds.), The psychology of love, 2nd ed. (pp. 87115). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Fisher, H. E. (2011). Serial monogamy and clandestine adultery: Evolution and consequences of the dual human reproductive strategy. In Roberts, S. C. (Ed.), Applied evolutionary psychology (pp. 96111). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.003.0007Google Scholar
Fisher, H. E., Xu, X., Aron, A., & Brown, L. L. (2016). Intense, passionate, romantic love: A natural addiction? How the fields that investigate romance and substance abuse can inform each other. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 687. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00687Google Scholar
Foerster, K., Delhey, K., Johnsen, A., Lifjeld, J. T., & Kempenaers, B. (2003). Females increase offspring heterozygosity and fitness through extra-pair matings. Nature, 425(6959),714717. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01969CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frederick, D. A., & Fales, M. R. (2016). Upset over sexual versus emotional infidelity among gay, lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual adults. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45(1), 175191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508–014-0409-9Google Scholar
Gangestad, S. W. (2008). Biological adaptations and human behavior. In Crawford, C. & Krebs, D. (Eds.), Foundations of evolutionary psychology (pp. 153172). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Gangestad, S. W., & Cousins, A. J. (2001). Adaptive design, female mate preferences, and shifts across the menstrual cycle. Annual Review of Sex Research, 12, 145185.Google ScholarPubMed
Gangestad, S. W., Garver-Apgar, C. E., Cousins, A. J., & Thornhill, R. (2014). Intersexual conflict across women’s ovulatory cycle. Evolution and Human Behavior, 35(4), 302308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.02.012Google Scholar
Gangestad, S. W., & Thornhill, R. (1997a). Human sexual selection and developmental stability. In Simpson, J. A. & Kenrick, D. T. (Eds.), Evolutionary social psychology (pp. 169196). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Gangestad, S. W., & Thornhill, R. (1997b). The evolutionary psychology of extrapair sex: The role of fluctuating asymmetry. Evolution and Human Behavior, 18(2), 6988. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090–5138(97)00003-2Google Scholar
Gangestad, S. W., & Thornhill, R. (1998). Menstrual cycle variation in women’s preferences for the scent of symmetrical men. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 265(1399), 927933. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1998.0380Google Scholar
Gangestad, S. W., & Thornhill, R. (1999). Individual differences in developmental precision and fluctuating asymmetry: A model and its implications. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 12(2), 406416. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1420-9101.1999.00039.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gangestad, S. W., & Thornhill, R. (2008). The evolutionary biology of human female sexuality. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gangestad, S. W., Thornhill, R., & Garver, C. E. (2002). Change in women’s sexual interest and their partners’ mate-retention tactics across the menstrual cycle: Evidence for shifting conflicts of interest. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 269(1494), 975982. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2001.1952Google Scholar
Gray, E. M. (1997). Do female red-winged blackbirds benefit genetically from seeking extra-pair copulations? Animal Behaviour, 53(3), 605623. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1996.0337Google Scholar
Griffith, S. C., Owens, I. P. F., & Thuman, K. A. (2002). Extra pair paternity in birds: A review of interspecific variation and adaptive function. Molecular Ecology, 11(11), 21952212. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294X.2002.01613.xGoogle Scholar
Guéguen, N. (2012). Gait and menstrual cycle: Ovulating women use sexier gaits and walk slowly ahead of men. Gait & Posture, 35(4), 621624. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2011.12.011Google Scholar
Guitar, A. E., Geher, G. G., Kruger, D. J., Garcia, J. R., Fisher, M. L., & Fitzgerald, C. J. (2017). Defining and distinguishing sexual and emotional infidelity. Current Psychology, 36(3), 434446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144–016-9432-4Google Scholar
Hackathorn, J., & Ashdown, B. K. (2020). The webs we weave: Predicting infidelity motivations and extradyadic relationship satisfaction. Journal of Sex Research. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2020.1746954Google Scholar
Haselton, M. G., & Gangestad, S. W. (2006). Conditional expression of women’s desires and men’s mate guarding across the ovulatory cycle. Hormones and Behavior, 49(4), 509518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.10.006Google Scholar
Haselton, M. G., Mortezaie, M., Pillsworth, E. G., Bleske-Rechek, A., & Frederick, D. A. (2007). Ovulatory shifts in human female ornamentation: Near ovulation, women dress to impress. Hormones & Behavior, 51(1), 4045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.07.007Google Scholar
Head, M. L., Holman, L., Lanfear, R., Kahn, A. T., & Jennions, M. D. (2015). The extent and consequences of p-hacking in science. PLoS Biology, 13(3), e1002106. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1002106Google Scholar
Hertlein, K. M., & Piercy, F. P. (2006). Internet infidelity: A critical review of the literature. The Family Journal, 14(4), 366371. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480706290508Google Scholar
Hobbs, D. R., & Gallup, G. G. Jr. (2011). Songs as a medium for embedded reproductive messages. Evolutionary Psychology, 9(3), 390416. https://doi.org/10.1177/147470491100900309Google Scholar
Hughes, S. M., & Harrison, M. A. (2017). Your cheatin’ voice will tell on you: Detection of past infidelity from voice. Evolutionary Psychology, 15(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/1474704917711513CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, S. M., & Harrison, M. A. (2018). Women reveal, men conceal: Current relationship disclosure when seeking an extrapair partner. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, 13(3), 272277. https://doi.org/10.1037/ebs0000133Google Scholar
Hughes, S. M., Harrison, M. A., & Gallup, G. G. Jr. (2004). Sex differences in mating strategies: Mate guarding, infidelity and multiple concurrent sex partners. Sexualities, Evolution & Gender, 6(1), 313. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616660410001733588Google Scholar
Hughes, S. M., Harrison, M. A., & Gallup, G. G. Jr. (2009). Sex-specific body configurations can be estimated from voice samples. Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology, 3(4), 343355. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0099311Google Scholar
IMDb. (2020a). The Bridges of Madison Country. Retrieved from www.imdb.com/title/tt0112579/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1Google Scholar
IMDb. (2020b). The Sound of Music. Retrieved from www.imdb.com/title/tt0059742/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1Google Scholar
IMDb. (2020c). The Thorn Birds. Retrieved from www.imdb.com/title/tt0085101/Google Scholar
Jankowiak, W., Nell, M. D., & Buckmaster, A. (2002). Managing infidelity: A cross-cultural perspective. Ethnology, 41(1), 85101. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4153022Google Scholar
Johnson, L., Petty, C. S., & Neaves, W. B. (1980). A comparative study of daily sperm production and testicular composition in humans and rats. Biology of Reproduction, 22(5), 12331243. https://doi.org/10.1093/biolreprod/22.5.1233Google Scholar
Jonason, P. K., Lyons, M., Baughman, H. M., & Vernon, P. A. (2014). What a tangled web we weave: The Dark Triad traits and deception. Personality and Individual Differences, 70, 117119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.06.038Google Scholar
Josephs, L. (2018). To cheat or not to cheat? The evolution of fidelity and infidelity. In Josephs, L. (Ed.), The dynamics of infidelity: Applying relationship science to psychotherapy practice (pp. 1943). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000053-002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jünger, J., Motta-Mena, N. V., Cardenas, R., Bailey, D., Rosenfield, K. A., Schlid, C., … & Puts, D. A. (2018). Do women’s preferences for masculine voices shift across the ovulatory cycle? Hormones and Behavior, 106, 122134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2018.10.008Google Scholar
Kempenaers, B., & Schlicht, E. (2010) Extra-pair behaviour. In Kappeler, P. (Ed.) In animal behaviour: Evolution and mechanisms (pp. 359412). Berlin: Springer.Google Scholar
Kempenaers, B., Verheyen, G. R., & Dhondt, A. A. (1996). Extrapair paternity in the blue tit (Parus caeruleus): Female choice, male characteristics, and offspring quality. Behavioral Ecology, 8(5), 481492.Google Scholar
Kempenaers, B., Verheyen, G. R., Van der Broeck, M., Burke, T., Van Broeckhoven, C., & Dhondt, A. A. (1992). Extra-pair paternity results from female preference for high-quality males in the blue tit. Nature, 357, 494496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kerr, N. L. (1998). HARKing: Hypothesizing after the results are known. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2(3), 196217. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0203_4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kiesner, J., Eisenlohr-Moul, T., & Mendle, J. (2020). Evolution, the menstrual cycle, and theoretical overreach. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 15(4), 11131130. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620906440CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koehler, N., & Chisholm, J. S. (2007). Early psychosocial stress predicts extra-pair copulations. Evolutionary Psychology, 5(1), 184201. https://doi.org/10.1177/147470490700500111Google Scholar
Kruger, D. J., Fisher, M. L., Edelstein, R. S., Chopik, W. J., Fitzgerald, C. J., & Strout, S. L. (2013). Was that cheating? Perceptions vary by sex, attachment anxiety, and behavior. Evolutionary Psychology, 11, 159171. https://doi.org/10.1177/147470491301100115Google Scholar
Kurzban, R. (2012). Cheatin’ hearts and loaded guns: The high fitness stakes of country music lyrics. Review of General Psychology, 16(2), 187191. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027913CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lammers, J., Stoker, J. I., Jordan, J., Pollman, M., & Stapel, D. A. (2011). Power increases infidelity among men and women. Psychological Science, 22(9), 11911197. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611416252Google Scholar
Larmuseau, M. H. D., Matthijs, K., & Wenseleers, T. (2016). Cuckolded fathers rare in human populations. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 31(5), 327329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2016.03.004Google Scholar
Larmuseau, M. H. D., van der Berg, P., Claerhout, S., Calafell, F., Boattini, A., Gruyters, L., … & Wenseleers, T. (2019). A historical-genetic reconstruction of human extra-pair paternity. Current Biology, 29(23), 41024107.e7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2019.09.075Google Scholar
Larmuseau, M. H. D., Van Geystelen, A., Defraene, G., Vanderheyden, N., Matthys, K., Wenseleers, T., … & Decorte, R. (2013). Low historical rates of cuckoldry in a Western European human population traced by Y-chromosome and genealogical data. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 280(1772), 18. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.2400Google Scholar
Larson, C. M., Pillsworth, E. G., & Haselton, M. G. (2012). Ovulatory shifts in women’s attractions to primary partners and other men: Further evidence of the importance of primary partner sexual attractiveness. PLoS One, 7(9), e44456. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044456Google Scholar
LaSala, M. C. (2004). Monogamy of the heart: Extradyadic sex and gay male couples. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 17(3), 124. https://doi.org/10.1300/J041v17n03_01CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laumann, E. O., Gagnon, J. H., Michael, R. T., & Michaels, S. (1994). The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Leivers, S., Simmons, L. W., & Rhodes, G. (2015). Men’s sexual faithfulness judgments may contain a kernel of truth. PLoS One, 10(8), e0134007. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0134007Google Scholar
Lopes, G. S., Shackelford, T. K., Buss, D. M., & Abed, M. G. (2020). Individual differences and disagreement in romantic relationships. Personality and Individual Differences, 155, 109735. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109735Google Scholar
Lovejoy, O. C. (2009). Reexamining human origins in light of Ardipithecus ramidus. Science, 326(5949), 7478. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1175834Google Scholar
Luo, L., Becker, B., Geng, Y., Zhao, Z., Gao, S., Zhao, W., … & Kendrick, K. M. (2017). Sex-dependent neural effect of oxytocin during subliminal processing of negative emotion faces. NeuroImage, 162, 127137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.08.079Google Scholar
Magginetti, J., & Pillsworth, E. G. (2020). Women’s sexual strategies in pregnancy. Evolution and Human Behavior, 41(1), 7686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2019.10.001Google Scholar
Maklakov, A. A., & Lubin, Y. (2006). Indirect genetic benefits of polyandry in a spider with direct costs of mating. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 61, 3138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265–006-0234-9Google Scholar
McBurney, D. H., Zapp, D. J., & Streeter, S. A. (2005). Preferred number of sexual partners: Tails of distributions and tales of mating systems. Evolution and Human Behavior, 26(3), 271278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.09.005Google Scholar
McDaniel, B. T., Drouin, M., & Cravens, J. D. (2017). Do you have anything to hide? Infidelity-related behaviors on social media sites and marital satisfaction. Computers in Human Behavior, 66, 8895. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.09.031Google Scholar
McKibbin, W. F., Starratt, V. G., Shackelford, T. K., & Goetz, A. T. (2011). Perceived risk of female infidelity moderates the relationship between objective risk of female infidelity and sexual coercion in humans (Homo sapiens). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 125(3), 370373. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023146Google Scholar
McNamara, K. B., van Lieshout, E., & Simmons, L. W. (2014). A test of the sexy-sperm and good-sperm hypotheses for the evolution of polyandry. Behavioral Ecology, 25(4), 989995. https://doi.org/doi:10.1093/beheco/aru067Google Scholar
Miller, S. L., & Maner, J. K. (2008). Coping with romantic betrayal: Sex differences in response to partner infidelity. Evolutionary Psychology, 6(3), 413426. https://doi.org/10.1177/147470490800600305Google Scholar
Møller, A. P., & Birkhead, T. R. (1994). The evolution of plumage brightness in birds is related to extrapair paternity. Evolution, 48(4), 10891100. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1994.tb05296.xGoogle Scholar
Neese, R. M. (1990). Evolutionary explanations of emotions. Human Nature, 1(3), 261289. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02733986Google Scholar
NPR.com. (2009). The infidelity app. Retrieved from www.npr.org/sections/talk/2009/06/the_infidelity_app_1.htmlGoogle Scholar
NPR.com. (2015). Affair-enabling website Ashley Madison is compromised by hackers. Retrieved from www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/07/20/424637005/affair-enabling-website-ashley-madison-is-compromised-by-hackersGoogle Scholar
Parker, G. A. (1970). Sperm competition and its evolutionary consequences in the insects. Biological Reviews, 45(4), 525567. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185X.1970.tb01176.xGoogle Scholar
Penton-Voak, I. S., & Perrett, D. I. (2000). Female preference for male faces changes cyclically: Further evidence. Evolution and Human Behavior, 21(1), 3948. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090–5138(99)00033-1Google Scholar
Pillsworth, E. G., & Haselton, M. G. (2006a). Male sexual attractiveness predicts differential ovulatory shifts in female extra-pair attraction and male mate retention. Evolution and Human Behavior, 27(4), 247258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.10.002Google Scholar
Pillsworth, E. G., & Haselton, M. G. (2006b). Women’s sexual strategies: The evolution of long-term bonds and extrapair sex. Annual Review of Sex Research, 17(1), 59100. https://doi.org/10.1080/10532528.2006.10559837Google Scholar
Price, M. E., Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (2002). Punitive sentiment as an anti-free rider psychological device. Evolution and Human Behavior, 23(3), 203231. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090–5138(01)00093-9Google Scholar
Puts, D. A. (2005). Mating context and menstrual phase affect women’s preferences for male voice pitch. Evolution and Human Behavior, 26(5), 388397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.03.001Google Scholar
Puts, D. A. (2006). Cyclic variation in women’s preferences for masculine traits: Potential hormonal causes. Human Nature, 17(1), 114127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110–006-1023-xGoogle Scholar
Puts, D. A. (2010). Beauty and the beast: Mechanisms of sexual selection in humans. Evolution and Human Behavior, 31(3), 157175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.02.005Google Scholar
Qi, X. Grueter, C. C., Fang, G., Huang, P., Zhang, J., Duan, Y., … & Li, B. (2020). Multilevel societies facilitate infanticide avoidance through increased extrapair matings. Animal Behaviour, 161, 127137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2019.12.014Google Scholar
Rad, M. S., Martingano, J., & Ginges, J. (2018). Toward a psychology of Homo sapiens: Making psychological science more representative of the human population. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(45), 1140111405. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1721165115Google Scholar
Rhodes, G., Morley, G., & Simmons, L. W. (2013). Women can judge sexual unfaithfulness from unfamiliar men’s faces. Biology Letters, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2012.0908Google Scholar
Rodrigues, D., Lopes, D., & Pereira, M. (2017). Sociosexuality, commitment, sexual infidelity, and perceptions of infidelity: Data from the Second Love website. Journal of Sex Research, 54(2), 241253. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1145182Google Scholar
Roeder, D. V., Husak, M. S., Murphy, M. T., & Pattern, M. A. (2019). Size, ornamentation, and flight feather morphology promote within-pair paternity in a sexually dimorphic passerine. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 73, 90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265–019-2704-xGoogle Scholar
Roney, J. R., & Simmons, Z. L. (2016). Within-cycle fluctuations in progesterone negatively predict changes in both in-pair and extra-pair desire among partnered women. Hormones and Behavior, 81, 4552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.03.008Google Scholar
Salmon, C., Fisher, M. L., & Burch, R. A. (2019). Evolutionary approaches: Integrating pornography preferences, short-term mating, and infidelity. Personality and Individual Differences, 148(1), 4549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.05.030Google Scholar
Scelza, B. A., Prall, S. P., & Starkweather, K. (2020). Paternity confidence and social obligations explain men’s allocations to romantic partners in an experimental giving game. Evolution and Human Behavior, 41(1), 96103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2019.10.007Google Scholar
Schacht, R., & Kramer, K. L. (2019). Are we monogamous? A review of the evolution of pair-bonding in humans and its contemporary variation cross-culturally. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 7(230). https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2019.00230Google Scholar
Scheeren, P., de Apellániz, I. D. M., & Wagner, A. (2018). Marital infidelity: The experience of men and women. Temas em Psicologia, 26(1), 355369. https://doi.org/10.9788/TP2018.1-14PtGoogle Scholar
Scheib, J. E. (2001). Context-specific mate choice criteria: Women’s trade-offs in the contexts of long-term and extra-pair mateships. Personal Relationships, 8(4), 371389. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2001.tb00046.xGoogle Scholar
Seal, D. W., Agostinelli, G., & Hannett, C. A. (1994). Extradyadic romantic involvement: Moderating effects of sociosexuality and gender. Sex Roles, 31, 122. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01560274Google Scholar
Shackelford, T. K., Besser, A., & Goetz, A. T. (2008). Personality, marital satisfaction, and probability of marital infidelity. Individual Differences Research, 6(1), 1325.Google Scholar
Shackelford, T. K., & Buss, D. M. (1997a). Cues to infidelity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(10), 10341045. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672972310004Google Scholar
Shackelford, T. K., & Buss, D. M. (1997b). Marital satisfaction in evolutionary psychological perspective. In Sternberg, R. J. & Hojjat, M. (Eds.), Satisfaction in close relationships (pp. 725). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Shackelford, T. K., Buss, D. M., & Bennett, K. (2001). Forgiveness or breakup: Sex differences in responses to a partner’s infidelity. Cognition & Emotion, 16(2), 299307. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000202Google Scholar
Shackelford, T. K., LeBlanc, G. J., & Drass, E. (2000). Emotional reactions to infidelity. Cognition & Emotion, 14(5), 643659. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930050117657Google Scholar
Schmitt, D. P. (2004). The Big Five related to risky sexual behaviour across 10 world regions: Differential personality associations of sexual promiscuity and relationship infidelity. European Journal of Personality, 18(4), 301319. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.520Google Scholar
Schmitt, D. P. (2008). Evolutionary psychology research methods. In Crawford, C. & Krebs, D. (Eds.), Foundations of evolutionary psychology (pp. 215236). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Schützwohl, A. (2005). Sex differences in jealousy: The processing of cues to infidelity. Evolution and Human Behavior, 26(3), 288299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.09.003Google Scholar
Shelton, J. D. (2009). Why multiple sexual partners? The Lancet, 374(9687), 367369. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140–6736(09)61399-4Google Scholar
Simmons, L. W., Firman, R. C., Rhodes, G., & Peters, M. (2004). Human sperm competition: Testis size, sperm production and rates of extrapair copulations. Animal Behaviour, 68(2), 297302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.11.013Google Scholar
Singletary, B., & Tecot, S. (2019). Multimodal pair-bond maintenance: A review of signaling across modalities in pair-bonded nonhuman primates. American Journal of Primatology, 82(3), e23105. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.23105Google Scholar
Statista Research. (2020). Population of Belgium from 2009 to 2020, by region. Retrieved from www.statista.com/statistics/517196/population-of-belgium-by-region/Google Scholar
Stewart, A. J., & Plotkin, J. B. (2014). Collapse of cooperation in evolving games. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 11(49), 1755817563. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1408618111Google Scholar
Symons, D. (1979). The evolution of human sexuality. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tadinac, M. (2020). There and back again: On the need to put the proximate back into causation. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, 14(4), 379383. https://doi.org/10.1037/ebs0000208Google Scholar
Takahaski, H., Matsuura, M., Yahata, N., Koeda, M., Suhara, T., & Okubo, Y. (2006). Men and women show distinct brain activations during imagery of sexual and emotional infidelity. NeuroImage, 32(3), 12991307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.05.049Google Scholar
Thornhill, R., & Gangestad, S. W. (1996). The evolution of human sexuality. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 11(2), 98102. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(96)81051-2Google Scholar
Thornhill, R., & Gangestad, S. W. (1999). The scent of symmetry: A human pheromone that signals fitness? Evolution and Human Behavior, 20(3), 175201. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090–5138(99)00005-7Google Scholar
Thornhill, R., & Gangestad, S. W. (2003). Do women have evolved adaptation for extra-pair copulation? In Voland, E. & Grammar, K. (Eds.), Evolutionary aesthetics (pp. 341368). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-07142-7_13Google Scholar
Thornhill, R., & Gangestad, S. W. (2008). The evolutionary biology of human female sexuality. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In Campbell, B. H. (Ed.), Sexual selection and the descent of man, 1871–1971 (pp. 136179). Chicago, IL: Aldine.Google Scholar
Tsapelas, I, Fisher, H. E., & Aron, A. (2010) Infidelity: When, where, why. In Cupach, W. R. & Spitzberg, B. H. (Eds.), The dark side of close relationships II (pp. 175196). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Urooj, A., Anis-ul-Haque, , & Anjum, G. (2015). Perception of emotional and sexual infidelity among married men and women. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, 30(2), 421439.Google Scholar
van Stein, K. R., Strauß, B., & Brenk-Franz, K. (2019). Ovulatory shifts in sexual desire but not mate preferences: An LH-test-confirmed, longitudinal study. Evolutionary Psychology, 17(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/1474704919848116Google Scholar
Vulic´, M., & Kolter, R. (2001). Evolutionary cheating in Escherichia coli stationary phase cultures. Genetics, 158(2), 519526. PMID: 11404318Google Scholar
Wallner, B., Windhager, S., Schaschl, H., Nemeth, M., Pflüger, L.S., Fieder, M., … & Seidler, H. (2019). Sexual attractiveness: A comparative approach to morphological, behavioral and neurophysiological aspects of sexual signaling in women and nonhuman female primates. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology, 5, 164186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40750–019-00111-6Google Scholar
Walum, H., Westberg, L., Henningsson, S., Neiderhiser, J. M., Reiss, D., Igl, W., … & Lichtenstein, P. (2008). Genetic variation in the vasopressin receptor 1a gene (AVPR1A) associates with pair-bonding behavior in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(37), 1415314156. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0803081105Google Scholar
Wang, Y., & Apostolou, M. (2019). Male tolerance to same-sex infidelity: A cross-cultural investigation. Evolutionary Psychology, 17(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/1474704919843892Google Scholar
Warrington, M. H., Rollins, L. A., Russell, A. F., & Griffith, S. C. (2015). Sequential polyandry through divorce and re-pairing in a cooperatively breeding bird reduces helper-offspring relatedness. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 69, 13111321. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265–015-1944-7Google Scholar
Whisman, M. A., & Snyder, D. K. (2007). Sexual infidelity in a national survey of American women: Differences in prevalence and correlates as a function of method of assessment. Journal of Family Psychology, 21(2), 147154. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.21.2.147Google Scholar
White, T. D., Asfaw, B., Beyene, Y., Haile-Selassie, Y., Lovejoy, C. O., Suwa, G., & WoldeGabriel, G. (2009). Ardipithecus ramidus and the paleobiology of early hominids. Science, 326(5949), 7586. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1175802Google Scholar
Wigby, S., & Chapmen, T. (2004). Sperm competition. Current Biology, 14(3), PR100-R103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2004.01.013Google Scholar
Willis, M., Birthrong, A., King, J. S., Nelson-Gray, R. O., & Latzman, R. D. (2017). Are infidelity tolerance and rape myth acceptance related constructs? An association moderated by psychopathy and narcissism. Personality and Individual Differences, 117(15), 230235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.06.015Google Scholar
Wilson, M., & Daly, M. (1992). The man who mistook his wife for a chattel. In Barkow, J. H., Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (Eds), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wilt, J., Harrison, M. A., & Michael, C. A. (2018). Attitudes and experiences of swinging couples. Psychology & Sexuality, 9(1), 3853. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2017.1419984Google Scholar
Wischniewski, J., Windmann, S., Juckel, G., & Brüne, M. (2009). Rules of social exchange: Game theory, individual differences and psychopathology. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 33(3), 305313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.09.008Google Scholar
Worldometer. (2020). Countries in the world by population – 2020. Retrieved from www.worldometers.info/world-population/population-by-country/Google Scholar
Xu, L., Becker, B., Luo, R., Zheng, X., Zhao, W., Zhang, Q., … & Kendrick, K. M. (2020). Oxytocin amplifies sex differences in human mate choice. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 112, 104483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.104483Google Scholar
Zietsch, B. P., Westberg, L., Santtila, P., & Jern, P. (2015). Genetic analysis of human extrapair mating: Heritability, between-sex correlation, and receptor genes for vasopressin and oxytocin. Evolution and Human Behavior, 36(2), 130136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.10.001Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×