Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T22:49:45.180Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

24 - Principles of Prevention and Intervention to Close Discipline Gaps in Schools

from Part IV - Behavioral and Social-Emotional Interventions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2020

By
Anne Gregory  and
Russell J. Skiba
Edited by
Frank C. Worrell ,
Tammy L. Hughes  and
Dante D. Dixson
Frank C. Worrell
Affiliation:
University of California, Berkeley
Tammy L. Hughes
Affiliation:
Duquesne University, Pittsburgh
Dante D. Dixson
Affiliation:
Michigan State University
Get access

Summary

Educators and school psychologists are seeking ways to eliminate race and gender disparities in their school discipline. This chapter offers the Framework for Increasing Equity in School Discipline to guide their efforts in reforming discipline policy and practices. The principles are comprehensive, with an emphasis on both prevention and intervention. They identify the characteristics of classrooms and schools that need to be strengthened to prevent disciplinary interactions. With regard to intervention, they call for student and adult development of social and behavioral skills, equitable access to adult support, and a problem-solving approach to conflict that integrates family and student voice. Together, the principles show promise for reducing the use of exclusionary discipline and the punitive treatment of marginalized students.

Keywords

equityschool disciplinesuspensionteacher professional developmentdiscipline policyrace and gender disparities
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Applied School Psychology , pp. 409 - 427
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anyon, Y., Jenson, J., Altschul, I., et al. (2014). The persistent effect of race and the promise of alternatives to suspension in school discipline outcomes. Children and Youth Services Review, 44, 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.06.025CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aronson, B., & Laughter, J. (2016). The theory and practice of culturally relevant education: A synthesis of research across content areas. Review of Educational Research, 86, 163–206. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315582066CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balfanz, J., Byrnes, V., & Fox, J. (2015). Sent home and put off track: The antecedents, disproportionalities, and consequences of being suspended in the 9th grade. In Losen, D. J. (Ed.), Closing the school discipline gap: Equitable remedies for excessive exclusion (pp. 17–30). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
Bradshaw, C. P., Mitchell, M. M., & Leaf, P. J. (2010). Examining the effects of schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports on student outcomes: Results from a randomized controlled effectiveness trial in elementary schools. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 12, 133–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300709334798Google Scholar
Bradshaw, C. P., Waasdorp, T. E., and Leaf, P. J. (2012). Effects of School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports on Child Behavior Problems. Pediatrics, 130, e1136–e1145. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-0243CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Briesch, A. M., & Briesch, J. M. (2015). Meta-analysis of behavioral self-management interventions in single-case research. School Psychology Review, 45, 3–18. https://doi.org/10.17105/SPR45-1.3-18Google Scholar
Bryk, A. S., & Schneider, B. L. (2002). Trust in schools: A core resource for improvement. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Bullis, M., Yovanoff, P., Mueller, G., & Havel, E. (2002). Life on the “outs”: Examination of the facility-to-community transition of incarcerated adolescents. Exceptional Children, 69, 7–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290206900101Google Scholar
Card, D., & Giulano, L. (2016). Can tracking raise the test scores of high-ability minority students (NBER Working Paper No. 22104 JEL No. I2). Retrieved from http://davidcard.berkeley.edu/papers/card-giuliano-tracking.pdfGoogle Scholar
Carter, P., Skiba, R. J., Arredondo, M., & Pollock, M. (2015). You can’t fix what you don’t look at: Acknowledging race in addressing racial discipline disparities (Discipline Disparities Research-to-Practice Briefing Paper Series #4). Bloomington, IN: Equity Project at Indiana University. Retrieved from www.indiana.edu/~atlantic/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Acknowledging-Race_121514.pdfGoogle Scholar
Center for the Advanced Study of Teaching and Learning. (2015). Creating opportunities through relationships: Online professional development. Charlottesville, VA: Curry School of Education, University of Virginia. Retrieved from www.corclassrooms.orgGoogle Scholar
Children’s Defense Fund. (1975). School suspensions: Are they helping children? Cambridge, MA: Washington Research Project.Google Scholar
Cornelius-White, J. (2007). Learner-centered teacher–student relationships are effective: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 77, 113–143. https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298563Google Scholar
Cornell, D., Maeng, J., Burnette, A.G., et al. (2016). Threat assessment in Virginia schools: Technical report of the Threat Assessment Survey for 2014–2015. Charlottesville, VA: Curry School of Education, University of Virginia.Google Scholar
Dee, T., & Penner, E. (2017). The causal effects of cultural relevance: Evidence from an ethnic studies curriculum. American Educational Research Journal, 54, 127–166. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831216677002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durlak, J., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions. Child Development, 82, 405–432. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fabelo, T., Thompson, M. D., Plotkin, M., et al. (2011). Breaking schools’ rules: A statewide study of how school discipline relates to students’ success and juvenile justice involvement. Council of State Governments Justice Center Publications. Retrieved from http://csgjusticecenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Breaking_Schools_Rules_Report_Final.pdfGoogle Scholar
Finn, J. D., & Servoss, T. J. (2015). Security measures and discipline in American high schools. In Losen, D. J. (Ed.), Closing the school discipline gap: Equitable remedies for excessive exclusion (pp. 44–58). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
González, T. (2015). Socializing schools: Addressing racial disparities in discipline through restorative justice. In Losen, D. J. (Ed.), Closing the discipline gap: Equitable remedies for excessive exclusion (pp. 151–165). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
Greenwald, A. G., Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E. L., & Banaji, M. R. (2009). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: Meta-analysis of predictive validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 17–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015575Google Scholar
Gregory, A., Bell, J., & Pollock, M. (2016). How educators can eradicate disparities in school discipline: Issues in intervention. In Skiba, R. J., Mediratta, K., & Rausch, M. K. (Eds.), Inequality in school discipline: Research and practice to reduce disparities (pp. 39–58). New York, NY: Palgrave MacMillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-51257-4_3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, A., Hafen, C. A., Ruzek, E. A., et al. (2016). Closing the racial discipline gap in classrooms by changing teacher practice. School Psychology Review. 45, 171–191. https://doi.org/10.17105/SPR45-2.171-191CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregory, A., & Ripski, M. (2008). Adolescent trust in teachers: Implications for behavior in the high school classroom. School Psychology Review, 37, 337–353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, A., Skiba, R. J., & Mediratta, K., (2017). Eliminating disparities in school discipline: A framework for intervention. Special issue on equity in school. Review of Research in Education, 47, 253–278. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X17690499CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guckenburg, S., Hurley, N., Persson, H., Fronius, T., & Petrosino, A. (2015). Restorative justice in US schools: Summary findings. San Francisco, CA: WestEd. Retrieved from http://jprc.wested.org/new-report-restorative-justice-in-u-s-schools-summary-findingsGoogle Scholar
Hamre, B. K., & Pianta, R. C. (2001). Early teacher-child relationships and the trajectory of children’s school outcomes through eighth grade. Child Development, 72, 625–638. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00301CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Himmelstein, K. E. W., & Bruckner, H. (2011). Criminal-justice and school sanctions against non-heterosexual youth: A national longitudinal study. Pediatrics, 127, 49–57. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-2306Google Scholar
Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., Smolkowski, K., et al. (2009). A randomized, wait-list controlled effectiveness trial assessing school-wide positive behavior support in elementary schools. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 11, 133–144. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300709332067Google Scholar
International Institute of Restorative Practices. (2014). Improving school climate: Findings from schools implementing restorative practices. Bethlehem, PA. Retrieved from www.iirp.edu/pdf/IIRP-Improving-School-Climate.pdfGoogle Scholar
Jain, S., Bassey, H., Brown, M. A., & Kalra, P. (2014). Restorative justice in Oakland schools. Implementation and impact: An effective strategy to reduce racially disproportionate discipline, suspensions, and improve academic outcomes. Retrieved from www.ousd.org/cms/lib/CA01001176/Centricity/Domain/134/OUSD-RJ%20Report%20revised%20Final.pdfGoogle Scholar
Jones, D. E., Greenberg, M., & Crowley, M. (2015). Early social-emotional functioning and public health: The relationship between kindergarten social competence and future wellness. American Journal of Public Health, 105, 2283–2290. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302630Google Scholar
JustChildren & Cornell, D. (2013). Prevention v. punishment: Threat assessment, school suspensions, and racial disparities. Retrieved from www.justice4all.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/UVA-and-JustChildren-Report-Prevention-v.-Punishment.pdfGoogle Scholar
Kaufman, J. S., Jaser, S. S., Vaughan, E. L., et al. (2010). Patterns in office referral data by grade, race/ethnicity, and gender. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 12, 44–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300708329710Google Scholar
Kena, G., Musu-Gillette, L., Robinson, J., et al. (2015). The condition of education 2015 (NCES 2015–144). Washington, DC: US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearchGoogle Scholar
Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dream-keepers: Successful teachers of African American children. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Losen, D. J. (2015). Closing the school discipline gap: Equitable remedies for excessive exclusion. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
Losen, D. J., & Martinez, T. E. (2013). Out of school and off track: The overuse of suspensions in middle and high schools. Los Angeles, CA: The Center for Civil Rights Remedies. University of California. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED541735.pdfGoogle Scholar
McIntosh, K., Mercer, S. H., Hume, A. E., et al. (2013). Factors related to sustained implementation of schoolwide positive behavior support. Exceptional Children, 79, 293–311.Google Scholar
McIntosh, K., Moniz, C. A., Craft, C. B., Golby, R., & Steinwand-Deschambeault, T. (2014). Implementing school-wide positive behavioural interventions and supports to better meet the needs of Indigenous students. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 29, 236–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573514542217Google Scholar
Mediratta, K. (2012). Grassroots organizing and the school-to-prison pipeline. The emerging national movement to roll back zero tolerance policies in US public schools. In Bahena, S., Cooc, N., Currie-Rubin, R., Kuttner, P., & Ng, M. (Eds.), Disrupting the school to prison pipeline (pp. 211–236). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.Google Scholar
Morgan, E., Salomon, N., Plotkin, M., & Cohen, R. (2014). The school discipline consensus report: Strategies from the field to keep students engaged in school and out of the juvenile justice system. New York, NY: The Council of State Governments Justice Center.Google Scholar
Morris, E. E., & Perry, B. L. (2016). The punishment gap: School suspension and racial disparities in achievement. Social Problems, 63, 68–86. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spv026CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MST Services. (2019). Multisystemic Therapy® (MST®) research at a glance: Published MST outcome, implementation and benchmarking studies. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/txfoubyGoogle Scholar
National Association of School Psychologists. (2013). Racial and ethnic disproportionality in education [Position statement]. Bethesda, MD: Author. Retrieved from www.nasponline.org/resources-and-publications/resources/diversity/disproportionalityGoogle Scholar
Noltemeyer, A., Ward, R. M., & Mcloughlin, C. S. (2015). Relationship between school suspension and student outcomes: A meta-analysis. School Psychology Review, 44, 224–240. https://doi.org/10.17105/spr-14-0008.1Google Scholar
Oakland Board of Education. (2015). Annual report to US Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights (OCR Docket Number 09–12–5001).Google Scholar
Okonofua, J. A., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2015). Two strikes: Race and the disciplining of young students. Psychological Science, 26, 617–624. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615570365Google Scholar
Okonofua, J. A., Paunesku, D., & Walton, G. M. (2016). Brief intervention to encourage empathic discipline cuts suspension rates in half among adolescents. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113, 5222–5226. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1523698113Google Scholar
Okonofua, J. A., Walton, G. M., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2016). A vicious cycle: A social–psychological account of extreme racial disparities in school discipline. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11, 381–398. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616635592Google Scholar
Osher, D., Fisher, D., Amos, L., et al. (2015). Addressing the root causes of disparities in school discipline: An educator’s action planning guide. Washington, DC: National Center on Safe Supportive Learning Environments.Google Scholar
Osher, D. M., Poirier, J. M., Jarjoura, G. R., & Brown, R. C. (2015). Avoid quick fixes: Lessons learned from a comprehensive districtwide approach to improve conditions for learning. In Losen, D. (Ed.). Closing the school discipline gap: Equitable remedies for excessive exclusion (pp. 192–206). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
Pianta, R. C., & Hamre, B. K. (2009). Conceptualization, measurement, and improvement of classroom processes: Standardized observation can leverage capacity. Educational Researcher, 38, 109–119. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X09332374CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poteat, V. P., Scheer, J. R., & Chong, E. S. K. (2016). Sexual orientation-based disparities in school and juvenile justice discipline: A multiple group comparison of contributing factors. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108, 229–241. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000058Google Scholar
Ramey, D. M. (2015). The social structure of criminalized and medicalized school discipline. Sociology of Education. 88, 181–201. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040715587114CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roorda, D. L., Koomen, H. M. Y., Spilt, J. L., & Oort, F. J. (2011). The influence of affective teacher-student relationships on students’ school engagement and achievement: A meta-analytic approach. Review of Educational Research, 81, 493–529. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654311421793Google Scholar
Scott, T. M., Hirn, R. G., & Barber, H. (2012). Affecting disproportional outcomes by ethnicity and grade level: Using discipline data to guide practice in high school. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 56, 110–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2011.592168CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seigle, E., Walsh, N., & Weber, J. (2014). Core principles for reducing recidivism and improving other outcomes for youth in the Juvenile Justice System. New York, NY: Council of State Governments Justice Center, Washington DC.Google Scholar
Sheets, R. H. (1996). Urban classroom conflict: Student–teacher perception ethnic integrity, solidarity and resistance. Urban Review, 28, 165−183. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02354383Google Scholar
Sheridan, S. M., Bovaird, J. A., Glover, T. A., et al. (2012). A randomized trial examining the effects of conjoint behavioral consultation and the mediating role of the parent-teacher relationship. School Psychology Review, 41, 23–46. DOI: 10.1080/02796015.2012.12087374Google Scholar
Skiba, R. J., Arredondo, M., & Williams, N. T. (2014). More than a metaphor? The contribution of exclusionary discipline to a school-to-prison pipeline. Equity and Excellence in Education 47, 546–564. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2014.958965Google Scholar
Skiba, R. J., Chung, C., Trachok, M., et al. (2014). Parsing disciplinary disproportionality: Contributions of infraction, student, and school characteristics to out-of-school suspension and expulsion. American Educational Research Journal, 51, 640–670. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831214541670Google Scholar
Skiba, R. J., Horner, R. H., Chung, C., et al. (2011). Race is not neutral: A national investigation of African American and Latinx disproportionality in school discipline. School Psychology Review, 40, 85–107. DOI: 10.1080/02796015.2011.12087730CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skiba, R. J., & Losen, D. J. (2016). From reaction to prevention: Turning the page on school discipline. American Educator, 44, 4–12.Google Scholar
Sugai, G., & Horner, R. H. (2010). School-wide positive behavior support: Establishing a continuum of evidence based practices. Journal of Evidence-based Practices for Schools. 11(1), 62–83.Google Scholar
Theokes, C., & Saaris, R. (2013). Finding America’s missing AP and IB students. Oakland, CA: Author. Retrieved from https://edtrust.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Missing_Students.pdfGoogle Scholar
Vavrus, F., & Cole, K. M. (2002). “I didn’t do nothin’”: The discursive construction of school suspension. Urban Review, 34, 87–111. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015375215801Google Scholar
Vincent, C. G., Inglish, J., Girvan, E. J., Sprague, J. R., & McCabe, T. M. (2016). School-wide positive and restorative discipline (SWPRD): Integrating school-wide positive behavior interventions and supports and restorative discipline. In Skiba, R. J., Mediratta, K., & Rausch, M. K. (Eds.), Inequality in school discipline: Research and practice to reduce disparities (pp. 115–134). New York, NY: Palgrave MacMillan.Google Scholar
Voight, A., Hanson, T., O’Malley, M., & Adekanye1 L. (2015). The racial school climate gap: Within-school disparities in students’ experiences of safety, support, and connectedness. American Journal of Community Psychology, 56, 252–267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-015-9751-xGoogle Scholar
Wachtel, T., Costello, B., & Wachtel, J. (2009). The restorative practices handbook for teachers, disciplinarians and administrators. Bethlehem, PA: International Institute of Restorative Practices.Google Scholar
Walker, H., Ramsey, E., & Gresham, F. (2004). Antisocial behavior in schools: Evidence-based practices (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Google Scholar
Watson, V. (2014). The Black sonrise: Oakland Unified School District’s commitment to address and eliminate institutionalized racism: An evaluation report prepared for the Office of African American Male Achievement. Oakland, CA: Oakland Unified School District. Retrieved from www.ousd.org/cms/lib07/CA01001176/Centricity/Domain/78/TheBlackSonrise_WebV2_sec.pdfGoogle Scholar
Weinstein, C. S., Tomlinson-Clarke, S., & Curran, M. (2004). Toward a conception of culturally responsive classroom management. Journal of Teacher Education, 55, 25–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487103259812Google Scholar
Wing, J. Y. (2006). Integration across campus, segregation across classrooms: A close-up look at privilege. In Wing, J. Y. & Noguera, P. A.. Unfinished business: Closing the achievement gap in our schools (pp. 84–121). San Francisco, CA: Wiley and Sons.Google Scholar
Wong, G., Derthick, A. O., David, E., Saw, A., & Okazaki, S. (2014). The what, the why, and the how: A review of racial microaggressions research in psychology. Race and Social Problems, 6, 181–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-013-9107-9Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×