Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dlnhk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T17:24:59.643Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

11 - Cross-Race/Ethnic Friendships in School

from Part III - Interventions from Educational and Social/Personality Psychology

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2020

Frank C. Worrell
Affiliation:
University of California, Berkeley
Tammy L. Hughes
Affiliation:
Duquesne University, Pittsburgh
Dante D. Dixson
Affiliation:
Michigan State University
Get access

Summary

In this chapter, current research on cross-race/ethnic friendships of children and adolescents in school settings is reviewed. In the first part of the chapter, research on the prevalence, meaning, and function of cross-race/ethnic friendships is discussed. The second section considers school organizational and instructional practices, such as academic tracking, that might interfere with the opportunity to form cross-race/ethnic friendships even in ethnically diverse schools. The third section reviews school-based interventions, including prejudice reduction programs, that can promote the development of friendships that cross racial and ethnic boundaries. The chapter concludes with reflections on promising directions for future research. Harnessing the power of cross-race/ethnic friendships may be critical for promoting tolerance of multiple groups in this era of increasingly racial/ethnic diversity.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

American Psychological Association, Presidential Task Force on Preventing Discrimination and Promoting Diversity. (2012). Dual pathways to a better America: Preventing discrimination and promoting diversity. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Retrieved from www.apa.org/pubs/info/reports/promoting-diversity.aspxGoogle Scholar
Tropp, L. R., & Mallet, R. K. (Eds.). (2011). Moving beyond prejudice reduction: Pathways to positive intergroup relations. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Retrieved from www.apa.org/pubs/books/4316127.aspxGoogle Scholar
Tropp, L. R., & Saxena, S. (2018). Re-weaving the social fabric through integrated schools: How intergroup contact prepares youth to thrive in a multiracial society (Research Brief #13). Washington, DC: The National Coalition on School Diversity. Retrieved from https://school-diversity.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/NCSD_Brief13.pdfGoogle Scholar

References

Aboud, F., Mendelson, M., & Purdy, K. (2003). Cross-race peer relations and friendship quality. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27, 165173. https://doi.org/10.1080/01650250244000164Google Scholar
Aboud, F., & Sankar, J. (2007). Friendship and identity in a language-integrated school. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31, 445453. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025407081469Google Scholar
Aboud, F., Tredoux, C., Tropp, L. R., et al. (2012). Interventions to reduce prejudice and enhance inclusion and respect for ethnic differences in early childhood: A systematic review. Developmental Review, 32, 307336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2012.05.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Bagci, S. C., Kumashiro, M., Smith, P. K., Blumberg, H., & Rutland, A. (2014). Cross-ethnic friendships: Are they really rare? Evidence from secondary schools around London. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 41, 125137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.04.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beelmann, A., & Heinemann, K. S. (2014). Preventing prejudice and improving intergroup attitudes: A meta-analysis of child and adolescent training programs. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 35, 1024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2013.11.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berndt, T. (2002). Friendship quality and social development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 710. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00157Google Scholar
Binder, J., Zagefka, H., Brown, R., et al. (2009). Does contact reduce prejudice or does prejudice reduce contact? A longitudinal test of the contact hypothesis among majority and minority groups in three European countries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 843856. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013470Google Scholar
Brechwald, W. A., & Prinstein, M. J. (2011). Beyond homophily: A decade of advances in understanding peer influence processes. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 166179. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00721.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Budescu, D. V., & Budescu, M. (2012). How to measure diversity when you must. Psychological Methods, 17, 212227. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027129Google Scholar
Cameron, L., Rutland, A., Brown, R., & Douch, R. (2006). Changing children’s intergroup attitudes toward refugees: Testing different models of extended contact. Child Development, 77, 12081219. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00929.xGoogle Scholar
Cameron, L., Rutland, A., Hossain, R., & Petley, R. (2011). When and why does extended contact work? The role of high quality direct contact and group norms in the development of positive ethnic intergroup attitudes amongst children. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 14, 193206. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430210390535Google Scholar
Charmaraman, L., Woo, M., Quach, A., & Erkut, S. (2014). How have researchers studied multiracial populations? A content and methodological review of 20 years of research. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20, 336352. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035437CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, X., & Graham, S. (2015). Cross-ethnic friendships and intergroup attitudes among Asian American adolescents. Child Development, 86, 749764. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12339Google Scholar
Clack, B., Dixon, J., & Tredoux, C. (2005). Eating together apart: Patterns of segregation in a multi‐ethnic cafeteria. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 15, 116. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.787Google Scholar
Clotfelter, C. T. (2002). Interracial contact in high school extracurricular activities. The Urban Review, 34, 2546. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014493127609CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crandall, C., & Eshleman, A. (2003). A justification-suppression model of the expression and experience of prejudice. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 414446. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.3.414Google Scholar
Crosnoe, R., Cavanagh, S., & Elder, G. H. (2003). Adolescent friendships as academic resources: The intersection of friendship, race, and school disadvantage. Sociological Perspectives, 46, 331352. https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2003.46.3.331CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cundiff, J., & Matthews, K. (2018). Friends with health benefits: The long-term benefits of early peer integration for blood pressure and obesity in midlife. Psychological Science, 29, 814823. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617746510Google Scholar
Davies, K., Tropp, L. R., Aron, A., Pettigrew, T. F., & Wright, S. C. (2011). Cross-group friendships and intergroup attitudes: a meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15, 332351. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868311411103Google Scholar
Dixon, J., Tredoux, C., Durrheim, K., Finchilescu, G., & Clack, B. (2008). “The inner citadels of the color line”: Mapping the micro-ecology of racial segregation in everyday life spaces. Social and Personality Compass, 2, 15471569. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00123.xGoogle Scholar
Dovidio, J. F., Eller, A., & Hewstone, M. (2011). Improving intergroup relations through direct, extended and other forms of indirect contact. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 14, 147160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430210390555CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., & Saguy, T. (2009). Commonality and the complexity of “we”: Social attitudes and social change. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 13, 320. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868308326751Google Scholar
Doyle, J., & Kao, G. (2007). Friendship choices of multiracial adolescents: Racial homophily, blending, or amalgamation? Social Science Research, 36, 633653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2006.12.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eccles, J., Barber, B., Stone, M., & Hunt, J. (2003). Extracurricular activities and adolescent development. Journal of Social Issues, 59, 865889. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0022-4537.2003.00095.xGoogle Scholar
Echols, L., & Graham, S. (in press). Meeting in the middle: The role of mutual biracial friends in cross-race friendships. Child Development. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13179Google Scholar
Echols, L., Solomon, B., & Graham, S. (2014). Same spaces, different races: What can cafeteria seating patterns tell us about intergroup contact in middle school? Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20, 611620. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036943Google Scholar
Feddes, A. Noack, P., & Rutland, A. (2009). Direct and extended friendship effects on minority and majority children’s interethnic attitudes: A longitudinal study. Child Development, 80, 377390. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01266.xGoogle Scholar
Flashman, J. (2012). Different preferences or different opportunities? Explaining race differentials in the academic achievement of friends. Social Science Research, 42, 888903. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.03.001Google Scholar
Frank, K. A., Muller, C., & Mueller, A. S. (2013). The embeddedness of adolescent friendship nominations: The formation of social capital in emergent network structures. American Journal of Sociology, 119, 216253. https://doi.org/10.1086/672081Google Scholar
Frank, K. A., Muller, C., Schiller, K. S., et al. (2008). The social dynamics of mathematics course taking in high school. American Journal of Sociology, 113, 16451696. https://doi.org/10.1086/587153Google Scholar
Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Anastasio, P. A., Bachman, B. A., & Rust, M. C. (1993). The common ingroup identity model: Recategorization and the reduction of intergroup bias. European Review of Social Psychology, 4, 126. https://doi.org/10.1080/14792779343000004Google Scholar
Goldsmith, P. A. (2004). Schools’ role in shaping race relations: Evidence on friendliness and conflict. Social Problems, 51, 587612. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2004.51.4.587CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gómez, A., Tropp, L. R., & Fernández, S. (2011). When extended contact opens the door to future contact: Testing the effects of extended contact on attitudes and intergroup expectancies in majority and minority groups. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 14, 161173. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430210391119Google Scholar
Graham, S. (2016). Commentary: The role of race/ethnicity in a developmental science of equity and justice. Child Development, 87, 14931504. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12602Google Scholar
Graham, S., & Echols, L. (2018). Race and ethnicity in peer relations research. In Rubin, K., Bukowshki, W., & Laursen, B. (Eds.), Handbook of peer interactions, relationships, and groups (2nd ed., pp. 590614). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Graham, S., Munniksma, A., & Juvonen, J. (2014). Psychosocial benefits of cross-ethnic friendships in urban middle schools. Child Development, 85, 469483. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12159Google Scholar
Greenfield, P. M., Davis, H. M., Suzuki, L., & Boutakidis, I. (2002). Understanding intercultural relations on multiethnic high school sports teams. In Gatz, M., Messner, M., & Ball-Rokeach, S. (Eds.), Paradoxes of youth and sport (pp. 269293). Albany, NY: SUNY Press.Google Scholar
Hallinan, M., & Smith, S. (1985). The effects of classroom racial composition on students’ interracial friendliness. Social Psychology Quarterly, 48, 316. https://doi.org/10.2307/3033777CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hallinan, M., & Williams, R. (1987). The stability of students’ interracial friendships. American Sociological Review, 52, 653664. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095601Google Scholar
Hallinan, M., & Williams, R. (1989). Interracial friendship choices in secondary schools. American Sociological Review, 54, 6778. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095662Google Scholar
Hallinan, M. T., & Williams, R. A. (1990). Students’ characteristics and peer-influence process. Sociology of Education, 63, 122132. https://doi.org/10.2307/2112858Google Scholar
Hamm, J. Brown, B., & Heck, D. (2005). Bridging the ethnic divide: Student and school characteristics in African American, Asian‐descent, Latino, and White adolescents’ cross‐ethnic friend nominations. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 15, 2146. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2005.00085.xGoogle Scholar
Helms, J., Jernigan, M., & Mascher, J. (2005). The meaning of race in psychology and how to change it. American Psychologist, 60, 2736. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.1.27CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hitti, A., & Killen, M. (2015). Expectations about ethnic peer group inclusivity: The role of shared interests, group norms, and stereotypes. Child Development, 86, 15221537. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12393CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Houlette, M. A., Gaertner, S. L., Johnson, K. M., et al. (2004). Developing a more inclusive social identity: An elementary school intervention. Journal of Social Issues, 60, 3555. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-4537.2004.00098.xGoogle Scholar
Hughes, J. M., Bigler, R. S., & Levy, S. R. (2007). Consequences of learning about historical racism among European American and African American children. Child Development, 78, 16891705. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01096.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jugert, P., Noack, P., & Rutland, A. (2013). Children’s cross-ethnic friendships: Why are they less stable than same-ethnic friendships? European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 10, 649663. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2012.734136Google Scholar
Kao, G., & Joyner, K. (2004). Do race and ethnicity matter among friends? Activities among interracial, interethnic, and intraethnic adolescent friends. Sociological Quarterly, 45, 557573. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2004.tb02303.xGoogle Scholar
Kawabata, Y., & Crick, N. (2008). The role of cross-racial/ethnic friendships in social adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1771183. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.4.1177Google Scholar
Kawabata, Y., & Crick, N. (2015). Direct and indirect links between cross-ethnic friendships and peer rejection, internalizing symptoms, and academic engagement among ethnically diverse children. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21, 191200. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038451Google Scholar
Killen, M., Rutland, A., & Ruck, M. D. (2011). Promoting equity, tolerance, and justice in childhood. Social Policy Report, 25, 133. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2379-3988.2011.tb00069.xGoogle Scholar
Knifsend, C., Camacho-Thompson, D., Juvonen, J., & Graham, S. (2018). Friends in activities, school-related affect, and academic outcomes in diverse middle schools. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47, 12081220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0817-6Google Scholar
Knifsend, C., & Juvonen, J. (2017). Extracurricular activities in multiethnic middle schools: Ideal context for positive intergroup attitudes? Journal of Research on Adolescence, 27, 407422. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12278Google Scholar
Knowles, E., & Tropp, L. (2018). Evidence for threat, identity, and contact effects in the 2016 presidential election. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 9, 275284. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550618759326Google Scholar
Kubitschek, W. N., & Hallinan, M. T. (1998). Tracking and students’ friendships. Social Psychology Quarterly, 61, 115. https://doi.org/10.2307/2787054Google Scholar
Lease, M., & Blake, J. (2005). A comparison of majority-race children with and without a minority-race friend. Social Development, 14, 2041. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2005.00289.xGoogle Scholar
Lee, L., Howes, C., & Chamberlain, B. (2007). Ethnic heterogeneity of social networks and cross-ethnic friendships of elementary school boys and girls. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 53, 325346. https://doi.org/10.1353/mpq.2007.0016Google Scholar
Markus, H. (2008). Pride, prejudice, and ambivalence: Toward a unified theory of race and ethnicity. American Psychologist, 63, 651670. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.63.8.651Google Scholar
McDonald, K., Dashiell-Aje, E., Mezer, M., et al. (2013). Contributions of racial and sociobehavioral homophily to friendship stability and quality among same-race and cross-race friends. Journal of Early Adolescence, 33, 897919. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431612472259CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGill, R., Way, N., & Hughes, D. (2012). Intra- and interracial best friendships during middle school: Links to social and emotional well-being. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22, 722738. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2012.00826.xGoogle Scholar
McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Cook, J. (2001). Birds of a feather: Homophily in social networks. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 415444. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.415CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moody, J. (2001). Race, school integration, and friendship segregation in America. American Journal of Sociology, 107, 679716. https://doi.org/10.1086/338954Google Scholar
Mouw, T., & Entwisle, B. (2006). Residential segregation and interracial friendship in schools. American Journal of Sociology, 112, 394441. https://doi.org/10.1086/506415Google Scholar
Newgent, R., Lee, S., & Daniel, A. (2007). Interracial best friendships: Relationship with 10th graders’ academic achievement level. Professional School Counseling, 11, 98104. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X0701100204CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oakes, J. (2005). Keeping track: How schools structure inequality (2nd ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Orfield, G. (2014). Tenth annual Brown lecture in education research: A new civil rights agenda for American education. Educational Researcher, 43, 273292. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X14547874Google Scholar
Owens, A., Reardon, S., & Jencks, C. (2016). Income segregation between schools and school districts. American Educational Research Journal, 53, 11591197. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831216652722CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Page-Gould, E., & Mendoza-Denton, R. (2011). Friendships and social interaction with outgroup members. In Tropp, L. & Mallett, R. (Eds.), Moving beyond prejudice reduction (pp. 139158). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/12319-007Google Scholar
Page-Gould, K., Mendoza-Denton, R., & Tropp, L. (2008). With a little help from my cross group friend: Reducing anxiety in intergroup contexts through cross-group friendship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 10801094. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.5.1080Google Scholar
Paluck, E. (2011). Peer pressure against prejudice: A high school field experiment examining social network change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 350358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.11.017Google Scholar
Paluck, E., & Green, D. P. (2009). Prejudice reduction: What works? A review and assessment of research and practice. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 339367. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163607CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paluck, E., & Shepherd, H. (2012). The salience of social referents: A field experiment on collective norms and harassment behavior in a school. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 899915. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030015Google Scholar
Paluck, E., Shepherd, H. & Aronow, P. (2016). Changing climates of conflict: A social network experiment in 56 schools. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113, 566571. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1514483113Google Scholar
Pettigrew, T. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 6585. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.65Google Scholar
Pettigrew, T., & Tropp, L. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 751783. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751Google Scholar
Pettigrew, T., & Tropp, L. (2008). How does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Meta-analytic tests of three mediators. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38, 922934. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.504CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pew Research Center. (2015, June). Multiracial in America: Proud, diverse, and growing in numbers. Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Pfeifer, J. H., Brown, C. S., & Juvonen, J. (2007). Teaching tolerance in schools: Lessons learned since Brown vs. Board of Education about development and reduction of children’s prejudice. Social Policy Report, 21, 323. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2379-3988.2007.tb00051.xGoogle Scholar
Putnam, R. (2007). E pluribus unum: Diversity and community in the twenty-first century: The 2006 Johan Skytte prize lecture. Scandinavian Political Studies, 30, 137174. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9477.2007.00176.xGoogle Scholar
Quillian, L., & Campbell, M. E. (2003). Beyond Black and White: The present and future of multiracial friendship segregation. American Sociological Review, 68, 540566. https://doi.org/10.2307/1519738Google Scholar
Quillian, L., & Redd, R. (2009). The friendship networks of multiracial adolescents. Social Science Research, 38, 279295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2008.09.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramiah, A., Hewstone, M., Schmid, K., & Floe, C. (2015). Why are all the White (Asian) kids sitting together in the cafeteria? Resegregation and the role of intergroup attributions and norms. British Journal of Social Psychology, 50, 100124. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12064Google Scholar
Rivas-Drake, D., Saleem, M., Schaefer, D., Medina, M., & Jagers, R. (2018). Intergroup contact attitudes across peer networks in school: Selection, influence, and implications for cross-group friendships. Child Development. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13061Google Scholar
Rosenthal, L. (2016). Incorporating intersectionality into psychology: An opportunity to promote social justice and equity. American Psychologist, 71, 474485. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040323Google Scholar
Sagar, A. H., Schofield, J. W., & Snyder, H. N. (1983). Race and gender barriers: Preadolescent peer behavior in academic classrooms. Child Development, 54, 10321040. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129907Google Scholar
Schneider, B., Dixon, K., & Udvari, S. (2007). Closeness and competition in the inter-ethnic and co-ethnic friendships of early adolescents in Toronto and Montreal. Journal of Early Adolescence, 27, 115138. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431606294822CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schofield, J. W., & Sagar, H. A. (1977). Peer interaction patterns in an integrated middle school. Sociometry, 40, 130138. https://doi.org/10.2307/3033516CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanton-Salazar, R. D., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1995). Social capital and the reproduction of inequality: Information networks among Mexican-origin high school students. Sociology of Education, 68, 116135. https://doi.org/10.2307/2112778Google Scholar
Stearns, E. (2004). Interracial friendliness and the social organization of schools. Youth & Society, 35, 395419. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X03261617Google Scholar
St. John, N., & Lewis, R. (1975). Race and the social structure of the elementary classroom. Sociology of Education, 48, 346368. https://doi.org/10.2307/2112459Google Scholar
Swart, H., Hewstone, M., Christ, O., & Voci, A. (2011). Affective mediators of intergroup contact: A three-wave longitudinal study in South Africa. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 12211238. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024450Google Scholar
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, 33, 3347.Google Scholar
Titzmann, P., Brenick, A., & Silbereisen, R. (2015). Friendships fighting prejudice: A longitudinal perspective on adolescents’ cross-group friendships with immigrants. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44, 13181331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0256-6Google Scholar
Tropp, L. R., O’Brien, T. C., & Migacheva, K. (2014). How peer norms of inclusion and exclusion predict children’s interest in cross‐ethnic friendships. Journal of Social Issues, 70, 151166. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12052Google Scholar
Turner, R., & Cameron, L. (2016). Confidence in contact: A new perspective on promoting cross-group friendship among children and adolescents. Social Issues and Policy Review, 10, 212246. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12023Google Scholar
Vaquera, E., & Kao, G. (2008). Do you like me as much as I like you? Friendship reciprocity and its effects on school outcomes among adolescents. Social Science Research, 37, 5572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2006.11.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, T., & Rodkin, P. C. (2011). African American and European American children in diverse elementary classrooms: Social integration, social status, and social behavior. Child Development, 82, 14541469. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01634.xGoogle Scholar
Wolfer, R., Faber, N., & Hewstone, M. (2015). Social network analysis in the science of groups: Cross-sectional and longitudinal applications for studying intra- and intergroup behavior. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 19, 4561. https://doi.org/10.1037/gdn0000021Google Scholar
Wright, S. C., Aron, A., McLaughlin-Volpe, T., & Ropp, S. A. (1997). The extended contact effect: Knowledge of cross-group friendships and prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 7390. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.73Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×