Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-24T17:52:09.208Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Part V - Very Visible Differences

Orientation, Disability, Freaks, and Clowns and Their Relationship to Crime and Victimization

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 March 2019

Bonnie Berry
Affiliation:
Social Problems Research Group
Get access
Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Bellafonte, G. (2013, April 7). When criminality becomes attached to wardrobe choice. New York Times, p. A24.Google Scholar
Berry, B. (2007a). Beauty bias: Discrimination and social power. Westport, CT: Praeger.Google Scholar
Berry, B. (2007b). Punishing looks: Criminalizing appearance and the American ugly laws. Paper presented at the American Society of Criminology 2007 annual meetings.Google Scholar
Berry, B. (2008). The Power of looks: Social stratification of physical appearance. Hampshire, UK: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Bogdan, R. (1988). Freak show: Presenting human oddities for amusement and profit. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Bogdan, R. (with Elks, M. and Knoll, J. A.) (2012). Picturing disability: Beggar, freak, citizen, and other photographic rhetoric. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.Google Scholar
Emerson, E. & Roulstone, A. (2014). Developing an evidence base for violent and disablist hate crime in Britain: Findings from a life opportunity survey. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29, 30863104.Google Scholar
Greenberg Traurig Report. (2011, June 29). Independent report in Atlanta eagle raid confirms that APD officers broke the law, lied, destroyed evidence, and engaged in anti-gay discrimination. Retrieved from http://www.AtlantaEagleRaid.com.Google Scholar
Kramer, A. E. (2017, April 23). Chechnya’s anti-gay pogrom: “They starve you. They shock you.” New York Times, p. 13.Google Scholar
Longmore, P. K. (2006). Personal communication, September 26.Google Scholar
Macy, B. (2016). Truevine. New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company.Google Scholar
Meyer, D. (2015). Violence against queer people: Race, class, gender, and the persistence of anti-LGBT discrimination. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Pascoe, C. J. (2012). Dude, you’re a fag: Masculinity and sexuality in high school. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Schweik, S. M. (2009). The ugly laws: Disability in public. New York, NY: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Sherry, M. (2010). Disability hate crimes: Does anyone really hate disabled people? Surrey, UK: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Sin, C. H., Hedges, A., Cook, C., Mguni, N., and Comber, N. (2009). Disabled people’s experience of targeted violence and hostility. Manchester, UK: Equality and Human Rights Commission.Google Scholar
Thorneycroft, R. & Asquith, N. L. (2015). The dark figure of disablist violence. The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 54, 489507.Google Scholar

References

Ahola, A. S., Hellström, Å., & Christianson, S. Å. (2010). Is justice really blind? Effects of crime descriptions, defendant gender and appearance, and legal practitioner gender on sentences and defendant evaluations in a mock trial. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 17, 304324.Google Scholar
Amnesty International Staff. (2005). Stonewalled: Police abuse and misconduct against lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people in the U.S. New York, NY: Amnesty International USA.Google Scholar
Carlen, P. (1985). Law, psychiatry and women’s imprisonment: A sociological view. British Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 618621.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carpenter, C. L. (2017). The “T” in LGBT: “Orange is the New Black” and transgender issues in corrections. Corrections Today, May/June, 52–56.Google Scholar
Caspani, M. (2015). Police discrimination against U.S. LGBT community pervasive: Report. New York, NY: Thomson Reuters Foundation. Retrieved from www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-lgbt-police/police-discrimination-against-u-s-lgbt-community-pervasive-report-idUSKBN0M02JM20150304.Google Scholar
Casper, I. B. (2013). Cross dressing and the criminal. Yale Journal of Law & the Humanities, 20(1), 130.Google Scholar
Collins, J. C. (2016). Retaliatory strike or fired with cause? A case study of gay identity disclosure and law enforcement. New Horizons in Adult Education & Human Resource Development, 28(1), 2345.Google Scholar
Cordner, G. & Cordner, A. (2011). Stuck on a plateau? Obstacles to recruitment, selection, and retention of women police. Police Quarterly, 14(3), 207226.Google Scholar
Dowler, K. & Arai, B. (2008). Stress, gender and policing: The impact of perceived gender discrimination on symptoms of stress. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 10(2), 123135.Google Scholar
Dozier, R. (2005). Beards, breasts, and bodies: Doing sex in a gendered world. Gender & Society, 19(3), 297316.Google Scholar
Dumas, R. & Testé, B. (2006). The criminal facial stereotypes on juridic judgments. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 65, 237244.Google Scholar
Finneran, C. & Stephenson, R. (2013). Gay and bisexual men’s perceptions of police helpfulness in response to male–male intimate partner violence. Western Journal of Emergency Medicine, 14(4), 354362.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flowe, H. & Humphries, J. E. (2011). An examination of criminal face bias in a random sample of police lineups. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25, 265273.Google Scholar
Griffith, D. (2016, September 2). The 2016 POLICE presidential poll. Police: The Law Enforcement Magazine. Retrieved from www.policemag.com/channel/patrol/articles/2016/09/the-2016-police-presidential-poll.aspx.Google Scholar
Heidensohn, F. (1985). Women and crime. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Herek, G. M. (1991). Stigma, prejudice, and violence against lesbians and gay men. In Gonsiorek, J. C. & Weinrich, J. D. (Eds.), Homosexuality: Research implications for public policy (pp. 6080). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Ickes, W. (1993). Traditional gender roles: Do they make, and then break, our relationships? Journal of Social Issues, 49(3), 7185.Google Scholar
King, D. J. (2005). Separate but equal: The introduction and integration of policewomen in the Bermuda police 1961–2002. Police Practice and Research: An International Journal, 6(3), 215233.Google Scholar
MacLin, O. H. & MacLin, K. M. (2004). The effect of criminality on face attractiveness, typicality, memorability, and recognition. North American Journal of Psychology, 6, 145154.Google Scholar
Madriz, E. (1999). Nothing happens to good girls: Fear of crime in women’s lives. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Mallory, C., Hasenbush, A., & Sears, B. (2015). Discrimination and harassment by law enforcement officers in the LGBT community. Los Angeles, CA: The Williams Institute. Retrieved from https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/LGBT-Discrimination-and-Harassment-in-Law-Enforcement-March-2015.pdf.Google Scholar
MAP (Movement Advancement Project). (2017). Tipping the scales: The coordinated attack on LGBTQ people, women, parents, children, and health care. Boulder, CO: MAP. Retrieved from www.lgbtmap.org/religious-exemptions-license-to-discriminate.Google Scholar
Mason, G. (2001). Body maps: Envisaging homophobia, violence and safety. Social & Legal Studies, 10(1), 2344.Google Scholar
Meyer, D. (1980). Violence against queer people: Race, class, gender, and the persistence of anti-LGBT discrimination. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Mogul, J. L. (2011). Queer (in)justice: The criminalization of LGBT people in the United States. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Morin, R., Parker, K., Stepler, R., & Mercer, A. (2017, January 11). Police views, public views. Pew Research Center Social & Demographic Trends. Retrieved from www.pewsocialtrends.org/2017/01/11/police-views-public-views/.Google Scholar
Nadal, K. L. & Davidoff, K. C. (2015). Perceptions of Police Scale (POPS): Measuring attitudes towards law enforcement and beliefs about police bias. Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Science, 3, 19.Google Scholar
Nadal, K. L., Quintanilla, A., Goswick, A., & Sriken, J. (2015). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer people’s perceptions of the criminal justice system: Implications for social services. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 27, 457481.Google Scholar
National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs (NCAVP). (2016). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and HIV-affected hate. Violence in 2016. New York, NY: Emily Waters. Retrieved from https://avp.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/NCAVP_2016HateViolence_REPORT.pdf.Google Scholar
Rabe-Hemp, C. (2008). Survival in an “All Boys Club”: Policewomen and their fight for acceptance. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 31(2), 251270.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rambo, K. S. (2008). “Trivial complaints.” The role of privacy in domestic violence law and activism in the U.S. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Sánchez, F. J., Greenberg, S. T., Liu, W. M., & Vilian, E. (2009). Reported effects of masculine ideals on gay men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 10, 7387.Google Scholar
Schilt, K. (2010). Just one of the guys? Transgender men and the persistence of gender inequality. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Skorinko, J. L. & Spellman, B. A. (2013). Stereotypic crimes: How group-crime associations affect memory and (sometimes) verdicts and sentencing. Victims & Offenders, 8(3), 278307.Google Scholar
Stewart-Winter, T. (2015). Queer law and order: Sex, criminality, and policing in the late twentieth-century United States. Journal of American History, 102(1), 6172.Google Scholar
Swanson, A. (2015, June 3). Chart: The most liberal and conservative jobs in America. Washington Post. Retrieved from www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/06/03/why-your-flight-attendant-is-probably-ademocrat/?utm_term=.62efb5ee7218.Google Scholar
Szymanski, D. M. & Carr, E. R. (2008). The roles of gender role conflict and internalized heterosexism in gay men’s psychological distress: Testing two mediation models. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 9, 4054.Google Scholar
Turner, N. (2007). Eyewitness perceptions: The effects of perceived likeability and masculinity on false identifications (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK. Retrieved from: http://eprints.port.ac.uk/617/.Google Scholar
Ward, C., Flowe, H., & Humphries, J. (2012). The effects of masculinity and suspect gender on perceptions of guilt. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26, 482488.Google Scholar
Wester, S. R., Pionke, D. R., & Vogal, D. L. (2005). Male gender role conflict, gay men and same-sex romantic relationships. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 6, 195208.Google Scholar

References

Alriksson‐Schmidt, A. I., Armour, B. S., & Thibadeau, J. K. (2010). Are adolescent girls with a physical disability at increased risk for sexual violence? Journal of School Health, 80(7), 361367.Google Scholar
American College Health Association. (2012). American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment II: Reference group executive summary Fall 2011. Hanover, MD: American College Health Association.Google Scholar
American College Health Association. (2014). American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment, Fall 2011 and Fall 2012. Baltimore, MD: Mary Hoban.Google Scholar
Anderson, M. L. & Leigh, I. W. (2011). Intimate partner violence against deaf female college students. Violence against Women, 17(7), 822834.Google Scholar
Blum, R. W., Kelly, A., & Ireland, M. (2001). Health-risk behaviors and protective factors among adolescents with mobility impairments and learning and emotional disabilities. Journal of Adolescent Health, 28(6), 481490.Google Scholar
Brownlie, E. B., Jabbar, A., Beitchman, J., Vida, R., & Atkinson, L. (2007). Language impairment and sexual assault of girls and women: Findings from a community sample. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(4), 618626.Google Scholar
Calderbank, R. (2000). Abuse and disabled people: Vulnerability or social indifference? Disability & Society, 15(3), 521534.Google Scholar
Cranford, J. A., Eisenberg, D., & Serras, A. M. (2009). Substance use behaviors, mental health problems, and use of mental health services in a probability sample of college students. Addictive Behaviors, 34(2), 134145.Google Scholar
Curry, M. A., Hassouneh-Phillips, D., & Johnston-Silverberg, A. (2001). Abuse of women with disabilities: An ecological model and review. Violence against Women, 7(1), 6079.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emerson, E. & Roulstone, A. (2014). Developing an evidence base for violent and disablist hate crime in Britain: Findings from the Life Opportunities Survey. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(17), 30863104.Google Scholar
Felson, M. & Clarke, R. V. (1998). Opportunity makes the thief. Police Research Series, Paper 98.Google Scholar
Finkelhor, D. & Asdigian, N. L. (1996). Risk factors for youth victimization: Beyond a lifestyles/routine activities theory approach. Violence and Victims, 11(1), 319.Google Scholar
Hahn, J. W., McCormick, M. C., Silverman, J. G., Robinson, E. B., & Koenen, K. C. (2014). Examining the impact of disability status on intimate partner violence victimization in a population sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(17), 30633085.Google Scholar
Harrell, E. (2017). Crime against persons with disabilities, 2009–2015 – Statistical tables. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics.Google Scholar
Jones, S. E. & Lollar, D. J. (2008). Relationship between physical disabilities or long‐term health problems and health risk behaviors or conditions among US high school students. Journal of School Health, 78(5), 252257.Google Scholar
McNamara, J., Vervaeke, S. L., & Willoughby, T. (2008). Learning disabilities and risk-taking behavior in adolescents: A comparison of those with and without comorbid attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41(6), 561574.Google Scholar
Mays, J. M. (2006). Feminist disability theory: Domestic violence against women with a disability. Disability & Society, 21(2), 147158.Google Scholar
Mueller-Johnson, K., Eisner, M. P., & Obsuth, I. (2014). Sexual victimization of youth with a physical disability: An examination of prevalence rates, and risk and protective factors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(17), 31803206.Google Scholar
Porter, J. & Williams, L. M. (2011). Intimate violence among underrepresented groups on a college campus. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(16), 32103224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reyns, B. W. & Scherer, H. (2017). Stalking victimization among college students: The role of disability within a lifestyle-routine activity framework. Crime & Delinquency. Advanced online publication. doi: 0011128717714794.Google Scholar
Scherer, H. L., Snyder, J. A., & Fisher, B. S. (2016). Intimate partner victimization among college students with and without disabilities: Prevalence of and relationship to emotional well-being. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31(1), 4980.Google Scholar
Sween, M. & Reyns, B. W. (2017). An empirical test of target congruence theory on intimate partner violence. Deviant Behavior, 38(1), 6173.Google Scholar
Wilcox, P. & Cullen, F. T. (2017). Situational opportunity theories of crime. Annual Review of Criminology. Advanced online publication. www.annualreviews.org/journal/criminol.Google Scholar

References

Black, E. (2003). War against the weak: Eugenics and America’s campaign to create a master race. New York, NY: Four Walls Eight Windows.Google Scholar
Black, S. (2017, June 4). Trying to embrace a “cure.” New York Times Sunday Review, p. 6.Google Scholar
Bogdan, R. (1988). Freak show: Presenting human oddities for amusement and profit. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Bogdan, R. (with Elks, M. and Knoll, J. A.). (2012). Picturing disability: Beggar, freak, citizen, and other photographic rhetoric. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.Google Scholar
Clarridge, C. (2016, October 24). What’s up with these creepy clowns? Seattle Times. Retrieved from www.seattletimes.com/life.Google Scholar
Davis, K. & Moore, W. E. (1945). Some principles of stratification. American Sociological Review, 10, 242249.Google Scholar
Do, A. (2016, August 27). Facing threats, albino Tanzanian sisters granted asylum in U.S. Seattle Times. Retrieved from www.seattletimes.com/nation-world.Google Scholar
Friedman, V. (2016, October 27). The creepy clown in your closet. New York Times, p. D2.Google Scholar
Lovejoy, B. (2016, October 16). What do the scary clowns want? New York Times Sunday Review, p. 5.Google Scholar
Macy, B. (2016). Truevine: Two brothers, a kidnapping, and a mother’s quest: A true story of the Jim Crow South. New York, NY: Little Brown and Company.Google Scholar
McAndrew, F. T. (2016, October 27). Why clowns creep us out. The Washington Post. Retrieved from www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2016/10/27.Google Scholar
Nir, S. M. & Schweber, N. (2017, May 22). A final bow for the greatest show on Earth. New York Times, p. A22.Google Scholar
Radford, B. (2016). Bad clowns. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press.Google Scholar
Rodriguez, D. (2017, May 7). The hunted. New York Times Sunday Review, pp. 6–7.Google Scholar
Wikipedia. (2016, October 2). Freak show. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/freak.show.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×