The concept of the musical work is based on the assumption that a composed piece of music is a work of art. From a historical perspective, authorship stands as a comparatively recent determinant of the work concept. Imposing the concept of the work of art on music required the translation of the ars musicae from the context of the artes liberales into a more modern system of the arts. Around 1400 a new musical realm of experience emerged, and with it the idea that composed music was first and foremost a presentation of text to listeners, a concept introduced emphatically by Ciconia. A prerequisite for aesthetic discourse is the regular availability of music - or put differently, the reproducibility of a notated text and its sound; and it was written traditions that enabled composers to refer to each other and compare works through both reading and listening.

Given the state of the art of scholarship dealing with the evolution of world history, this chapter provides a balanced perspective between elite and other interpretations of the global past. Christian universal histories were repeatedly written in a spirit that sought to divide divine truth from heretical viewpoints. Starting from the late fifteenth century, the European conquests began having massive impacts on entire world regions, particularly the Americas and the coastal regions of Sub-Saharan Africa. The growing knowledge about different world regions fed into the epistemological crises of European historiography. During the early modern period, many societies experienced their own "culture wars" or "history wars", for example between religious and proto-secular narratives. The Eurocentric orientation of historiographical cultures in general and world history in particular continued during much of the twentieth century. Despite its limited impacts, university-based historical scholarship has a strong influence on general education systems as well as, to a certain extent, on the media.