This chapter reviews the last twenty-five years of L2 prosody research in three sections, word stress, sentence intonation, and rhythm, and presents findings in relation to two underlying themes, form-meaning mapping and additive versus subtractive bilingual contexts. Concerning L2 stress, pioneering research framed perception difficulties either as an L1-to-L2 cue-transfer problem or as a processing deficit linked to learners’ inability to represent contrastive stress in their lexicons. Recent research established the extent and limits of those initial frames. L2 sentence intonation has multiple factors modeling its variation. One of them, social meaning, and in particular accommodation literature revealed the effect of affective factors which in multilingual communities became stronger than that of linguistic and social factors. As regards L2 rhythm, most research uses duration-based measures. Indeed, recent L1 studies started examining pitch-based rhythm measures which are still to be explored in L2. Ending with suggestions for future research that address those biases, this chapter aims at promoting a more inclusive and comprehensive understanding of L2 prosody.

Chapter 4 explains why Christianity did not become the faith of more than a small minority of warlords and why it was rejected and ultimately persecuted by the rulers who unified Japan in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. The plural religious scene – including competing sects of Buddhism, alongside Confucianism and Shinto – afforded an intellectual opening for Christianity. This mattered in particular to the conversion of certain elites in the Gokinai of the 1560s. However, the most emotional debates centred on the dynamics of immanent power noted in the last chapter, and here Buddhism, as a transcendentalist system, found ways of countering the force of Christian arguments. Indeed, on an institutional level, too, the sangha represented a formidable enemy for daimyo contemplating conversion. This chapter then proceeds to analyse the actions, diplomatic letters and anti-Christian edicts of Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu in order to identify the terms by which Christianity was identified as a subversive and unnecessary force. The transcendental elements of Japanese religion therefore played a decisive role in constraining the reach of the Japanese Christian movement. Lastly, the unifiers were intent on sacralising their authority, particularly post-mortem, and Christianity had little to offer in this regard.

Many people can continue to work with mild cognitive impairment and sometimes even with dementia. This will depend on the requirements of the job, and the worker with cognitive impairment may need accommodation to succeed. Remarkably, there has been relatively little research on this topic.

Exposure therapy is widely recognized as an effective psychological treatment for OCD but it is not successful in every case. Poorly executed exposure techniques could be implicated. Negative perceptions contribute to poor execution, pitfalls, or the underutilization of this therapy altogether. This, along with common ED misconceptions that are cultural and disorder-specific, can also result in poor treatment for those with EDs. It is important that the therapist has a thorough understanding of the patient’s presentation to ensure that exposures target the precise core fear for new learning. Lack of understanding can lead to mistakes and missed opportunities to enhance exposure, such as failing to explain the rationale, reducing safety behaviors, or overusing a hierarchy. An inexperienced therapist may not understand the importance of discussing the role of family and friends and how their accommodation can perpetuate symptoms, hindering new learning and preventing lasting change. The therapist should be able to identify the core fear, triggers, and avoidance behaviors in the patient and use strategies to enhance inhibitory learning and maximize the chances of successful treatment.

Personal liberty can be understood in terms of rights. Liberty includes the right to make foolish choices, including some choices that are wrongful. The rights of persons, it is sometimes argued, can be restricted legitimately only for the sake of securing the equal liberty of others. Each person has an equal right to be free. If sound, such a view would establish very substantial limits on the permissibility of legal measures to improve or protect the ethical environment of a society. This chapter examines and rejects this equal right to be free view, challenging both its cogency and determinacy. It next considers a more moderate position that holds that persons have significant rights to do wrong, and that these rights place limits on the range of legal measures that can be taken to improve the ethical environment of a society. After clarifying the general idea of a right to do wrong, the chapter examines and defends two bases for such rights; the first appeals to the value of accommodation and the second to the nested character of rights. An adequate account of ethical environmentalism, the chapter concludes, must respect these rights and the limits on legal measures that they support.

This chapter describes how romantic partners navigate the disagreements that necessarily result from their interdependence and how partners recover when they intentionally or unintentionally hurt each other. Specifically, it reviews the ways in which goals and desires conflict to produce disagreements and how disagreements provide a diagnostic situation in which people make inferences about their partner’s thoughts, feelings, and commitment. Next, it describes typical conflict topics, how conflicts tend to be experienced, and typical conflict prevalence over the course of a romantic relationship. Next, the chapter covers how people manage interpersonal conflicts and highlights specific conflict behaviors that are typically destructive (e.g., hostility, withdrawal) and specific conflict behaviors that are typically constructive (e.g., intimacy, problem solving), as well as how the adaptiveness of conflict behaviors can change depending on the situation. Finally, this chapter reviews how partners can recover from destructive conflicts and other relationship transgressions by accommodating rather than retaliating, sacrificing, and forgiving.

The concept of accommodative coping refers to a "family" of processes by which goal blockages, losses, and similar threats to quality of life are coped with by adjusting individual goal and valuation structures, i.e., in particular by devaluing or "letting go" of threatened or blocked goals and upgrading and pursuing alternative, more attainable goals in their place. While the functionality of accommodative regulatory processes in older and older adulthood has long been elaborated theoretically in several compatible modeling approaches and well studied empirically, accommodative processes in childhood and adolescence have only recently attracted scientific attention. It is helpful here to distinguish the efficacy of accommodative processes in childhood and adolescence itself from the developmental conditions for accommodative processes in adulthood and old age. Combining these perspectives opens up the prospect of an actual lifespan perspective on developmental regulation.

This chapter discusses the design of zoo enclosures and briefly considers important stages in the history of zoo design. Animals must be safely contained within zoos and the nature of the containment varies between species. From time to time containment methods fail and animals escape, sometimes with fatal consequence for them and the people they encounter. There is an ongoing debate about the appropriate amount of space required for some species, especially large carnivores and other wide-ranging taxa. Minimum space requirements for taxa are arbitrarily determined, and usable space and enclosure shape should be considered when enclosures are designed. A number of studies have examined enclosure use by zoo animals, the need for shade and an appropriate substratum. Visitor behaviour may affect enclosure use in some taxa. Enclosure design is a compromise between the need that animals have to avoid the gaze of the public and the desire of visitors to see the animals.

Chapter 1 introduces the concepts and ideas I discuss throughout this book. First, I provide a summary of the experiences of both individuals with disabilities and workers with caregiving responsibilities in the workplace. This summary exposes the difficulties these two groups have when trying to meet the expectations of their employers. Second, I introduce some of the laws and legal concepts that are discussed throughout the book—the Americans with Disabilities Act, reasonable accommodations, sex discrimination under Title VII, the Pregnancy Discrimination Act, and the Family and Medical Leave Act. Third, I briefly explain my proposal for reform. Finally, this chapter provides a brief outline of the structure of the rest of the book.

Individual speech sounds are modified by the phonetic environment in which they are found in connected speech. In this book, the term accommodation is used generically for any and all articulatory modifications that arise from the phonetic environment. The term assimilation is used for accommodation that crosses phonemic boundaries, and coarticulation is used for sub-phonemic accommodations. Accommodation occurs not due to laziness, but through these forces: (1) the fundamental constraints on producing a number of segments in rapid, connected succession, and (2) the efficiency of speech production – not producing gestures, or extending gestures beyond what is required for the production of highly intelligible speech. Accommodations might be informally called shortcuts, and some shortcuts are required by physical constraints and some are not; others are required by the grammatical rules of the language in question, defined by language-specific rules.

This chapter starts with a discussion of empirical testing based on structural versus reduced models in quantitative studies. Structural models consist of formulas that represent the relation of every dependent variable to its independent variables on various levels, whereas reduced models exhibit the net or overall relation between the dependent variable and the ultimate independent variables. Many quantitative studies published in management journal, especially those that use archival databases, belong to the reduced model category and thus seldom directly test the mechanisms in question. Another popular practice by quantitative researchers is post hoc hypothesis development where they develop hypotheses after they have obtained the results of data analysis. In the process, they may fudge their arguments to fit the results. A replication avoids all the shortcomings of post hoc hypothesis development because its hypotheses, which are the hypotheses of the original study, pre-exist data collection and analysis. Moreover, a replication helps to identify errors in the original study. A multi-method approach enables researchers to study a phenomenon more rigorously and may reveal unanticipated phenomena.

In this chapter, I argue for religious freedom as a first-class right, and I criticise the views of some distinguished scholars who react against traditional conceptions of religious freedom and deny the right to any special protection of religion by legal systems. I focus primarily on Ronald Dworkin and Brian Leiter’s views and arguments. I conclude that Dworkin’s approach to religion belittles the idea of God. Yet conviction about the existence of God and the holding of profound ethical and moral convictions are not so independent as Dworkin argues. Leiter’s approach belittles the idea of religion, which cannot be reduced to a matter of commands, a lack of evidence, and consolation. I argue why religion is more than a matter of conscience and a personal decision about ultimate concerns and questions. Religion cannot be reduced to moral conscience, let alone ethical independence in foundational matters. An increasingly globalised and pluralistic society demands a more comprehensive approach that fully protects all religions and creeds.

This chapter presents the most influential linguistic approaches to presupposition. Going beyond the traditional analyses of the problem of presupposition projection, it also considers recent developments in linguistics that link the analysis of presuppositions to general processes of cognition and reasoning, such as attention, probabilistic reasoning, theory of mind, information structure, attitudes and perspectival structure. I discuss some outstanding questions: whether presuppositions form one coherent group or should be thought of as different types of phenomena, why we have presuppositions at all, and why we see the presuppositions that we see (aka the triggering problem). Overall, the chapter stresses the need to consider the intricacies of the interaction of presuppositions with the broader discourse context.

This chapter discusses response evaluation theories (RETs), which foreground a process of response evaluation. It zooms in on the goal-directed theory of Moors (2017a), which proposes a goal-directed cycle as the causal-mechanistic explanation of the phenomena called emotions. The cycle starts with the detection of a discrepancy between a stimulus and a first goal, which activates a second goal to reduce the discrepancy. This reduction can take the form of assimilation (of the stimulus to the goal via overt action), accommodation (of the goal to the stimulus by changing the first goal), and/or immunization (reinterpretion of the stimulus as less discrepant). Assimilation requires further selection of the action with the highest expected utility. This in turn activates a third goal to engage in the action, leading to overt somatic and motor responses and feelings. The goal-directed theory can account for continuity, a rich form of Intentionality, phenomenality, bodily aspects, heat, control precedence, and irrationality. This wide scope is combined with parsimony in that presumed emotions and non-emotional phenomena are explained by the same mechanism. The goal-directed theory does not deliver discrete emotions, but can nevertheless make sense of them. Empirical research that tests the goal-directed theory is discussed.