Economics, trade and finance — Trade sanctions — Embargoes — Protectionism — Whether sanctions amounting to economic duress under English law — Relationship between international law and municipal law

Recognition — States — Legal personality of a State under English law — Legal capacity of a State under English law — Whether recognized as a State by United Kingdom Government — Whether Ukraine having capacity to issue bonds — Bond issuance illegal under Ukrainian law

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Customary international law — Personality of States — Capacity to act in municipal law of another State — Dealings between sovereign States — Governments — Whether defence of duress justiciable — Whether duress of person or of goods constituted by threats to safety of a State’s citizens

Reprisals and countermeasures — Countermeasures — Ukraine — Russia — Violation of territorial sovereignty — Whether non-repayment of bonds justified as a proportionate countermeasure — Whether doctrine of countermeasures recognized under domestic law — Relationship of international law and municipal law — The law of England

State immunity — Enforcement proceedings — Attachment of credits owed by third parties — Power of attorney — Formal requirements of powers of attorney made abroad — Translation of powers of attorney — Admissibility of appeal to Supreme Court of Cassation — Vagueness of application for appeal — Whether appellant’s arguments having to be raised before different court — Legal basis for enforcement proceedings — Whether judge presiding over enforcement proceedings having to verify existence of legal basis — Whether verification extending to questions as to scope of legal basis — Whether legal basis crystallizing at the time when judgment of which enforcement was sought becoming final — Whether subsequent changes immaterial in enforcement proceedings and having to be raised by challenging judgment on the merits — Whether questions as to jurisdiction of Italian courts irrelevant in enforcement proceedings — Whether judgment of International Court of Justice of 3 February 2012 directly binding on Italian courts

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Decisions of international courts — International Court of Justice’s (“ICJ”) judgment of 3 February 2012 — Whether directly binding on Italian courts — Italian Parliament’s Law No 5 of 14 January 2013 giving effect to ICJ’s judgment — Declaration of unconstitutionality of Law No 5 of 14 January 2013 — Whether necessary to follow law as ascertained by Constitutional Court — The law of Italy

State immunity — Immunity from civil jurisdiction — Immunity in relation to acts amounting to war crimes or crimes against humanity — Jurisprudence of Supreme Court of Cassation on jurisdictional immunity — Whether immunity lifted where foreign State’s acts war crimes or crimes against humanity — Judgment of International Court of Justice (“ICJ”) of 3 February 2012 — Whether Italy internationally responsible for not recognizing Germany’s immunity under customary international law — Law No 5 of 14 January 2013 — Change in jurisprudence of Supreme Court of Cassation on jurisdictional immunity — Constitutional Court’s judgment no 238 of 22 October 2014 — Whether Law No 5 of 14 January 2013 unconstitutional — Whether Italian courts denying jurisdictional immunity where foreign States perpetrating war crimes or crimes against humanity — Supreme Court of Cassation reverting to earlier jurisprudence — Whether Court of Appeal of Florence taking change in jurisprudence into account — Whether Court of Appeal’s judgment quashed — Whether case to be remitted to Court of First Instance

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Decisions of international courts — International Court of Justice’s judgment of 3 February 2012 — Whether Italy internationally responsible for not recognizing Germany’s immunity under customary international law — Law No 5 of 14 January 2013 — Change in jurisprudence of Supreme Court of Cassation on jurisdictional immunity — Constitutional Court’s judgment no 238 of 22 October 2014 — Whether Law No 5 of 14 January 2013 unconstitutional — Whether Italian courts denying jurisdictional immunity where foreign States perpetrating war crimes or crimes against humanity — Supreme Court of Cassation reverting to earlier jurisprudence — Whether Court of Appeal of Florence taking change in jurisprudence into account — Whether Court of Appeal’s judgment quashed — Whether case to be remitted to Court of First Instance

International criminal law — War crimes and crimes against humanity — State immunity — Immunity from civil jurisdiction — Immunity in relation to acts amounting to war crimes or crimes against humanity — Judgment of International Court of Justice of 3 February 2012 — Jurisprudence of Italian courts — The law of Italy

State immunity — Restrictive doctrine of State immunity — Whether acts of this case private legal acts — Whether acts of this case sovereign — Assessment — Customary international law — International conventions — Legislative trends in various countries — Case law — International Court of Justice — Italian courts — Whether exceptions to State immunity — Whether this case exceptional — Sovereign acts — Peremptory norms — Crimes against humanity — Whether reasonable for Korean court to have jurisdiction over Japan — Whether State immunity applicable

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Customary international law — State immunity — Applicability — Treaties — Korean written laws — Relevance — Customary international law — International conventions — Legislative trends in various countries — Case law — International Court of Justice — Italian courts — Whether exceptions to State immunity — Whether this case exceptional — Sovereign acts — Peremptory norms — Crimes against humanity — Interpretation of law — Whether conclusions unreasonable or unjust — Korean Constitution — Whether highest norm in legal order — Rights of victims — Damage to individuals — Reparations for individuals — Failure of lawsuits in other countries — Respect for sovereign States — Whether exception to State immunity where State violating peremptory norm — Whether State immunity applicable — Whether Korean court having jurisdiction

Jurisdiction — Crimes against humanity — Use of “comfort women” in Korea — Whether Korean court having jurisdiction — Whether State immunity applicable — Whether Korean court having international jurisdiction over this case — Whether exception to State immunity where State violating peremptory norm — Whether State immunity applicable — International jurisdiction — Relevant legal principles — Assessment — Article 2(1) of Private International Act — Whether Korean court having jurisdiction over litigation relating to extraterritorial cases when venue Korea

International criminal law — Crimes against humanity — Whether acts of this case constituting crime against humanity — Whether exception to State immunity where State violating peremptory norm — Whether State immunity applicable — Whether Korean court having jurisdiction

War and armed conflict — Treatment of civilians — Annexation of territory — Imperial Japan occupying Korean Peninsula — Annexation Treaty, 1910 — Asia-Pacific War — Military strategy of Imperial Japan — Wartime “comfort stations” — Wartime “comfort women” — Imperial Japan mobilizing “comfort women” from Korean Peninsula — Plaintiffs subjected to violence and sexual assaults by Japanese soldiers — Plaintiffs suffering physical and psychological damage — Plaintiffs seeking compensation from Japan — Reparations for individuals — Whether State immunity applicable — Whether Korean court having jurisdiction

Damages — Compensation — Post-war — Wartime “comfort stations” — Imperial Japan mobilizing “comfort women” from Korean Peninsula — Military strategy of Imperial Japan — Plaintiffs claiming reparations for physical and psychological damage — Whether acts of this case constituting crime against humanity — Responsibility for indemnification for damages — Applicable law — Assessment of illegality of acts of this case — Scope of responsibility for indemnification for damages — Reparations for individuals — Plaintiffs seeking reparations from Japan as successor to Imperial Japan — Whether Japan obligated to pay reparations to plaintiffs

Treaties — Application — Scope — Claims Agreement, 1965 — 2015 Agreement — Effect on plaintiffs’ right to claim reparations for damage — Whether Agreements extinguishing plaintiffs’ right to claim — The law of the Republic of Korea

Arbitration — Jurisdiction — Admissibility — Treaties — North American Free Trade Agreement, 1994 — Treaty interpretation — Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1969 — Effet utile doctrine — Whether one treaty interpretation technique dominating others

Arbitration — Consent to arbitration — North American Free Trade Agreement, 1994 (“NAFTA”) — Pre-arbitration requirements under Article 1119 — Whether consent to arbitration conditioned upon fulfilment of Article 1119 requirements — Notice of intent — Purpose of notice of intent under Article 1119 of NAFTA — Whether defect in notice of intent vitiating consent under Article 1122 of NAFTA — Whether pre-arbitration procedural matters jurisdictional or admissibility issues — Standard and scope of review of tribunals’ decisions — International Commercial Arbitration Act 2017

Treaties — Interpretation — Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1969 — Article 31(3) — Legal submissions as subsequent practice — Whether NAFTA Parties’ legal submission constituting subsequent practice under Article 31(3)(b) of Vienna Convention — Definition of subsequent practice — Jurisdictional error

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Treaties — North American Free Trade Agreement, 1994 — Decisions of international courts and tribunals — Decisions of Ontario Court of Appeal — Whether binding — Review of international arbitration awards — International Commercial Arbitration Act 2017 — Whether international arbitration tribunals acting within their authority — The law of Canada

State immunity — Jurisdictional immunity — Whether Italian courts having to declare that they lacked jurisdiction where cases brought against States for conduct amounting to crimes under international law — Relevance of judgment of 3 February 2012 of International Court of Justice (“ICJ”) — Change in earlier line of jurisprudence requiring courts to lift immunity when conduct of impleaded foreign States amounting to crimes under international law — Relevance of Law No 5 of 14 January 2013 — Law No 5 of 14 January 2013 giving effect to ICJ’s judgment of 3 February 2012 — Conformity of Law No 5 of 14 January 2013 with Italian Constitution — Constitutionality of Law No 5 of 14 January 2013 — Law No 5 of 14 January 2013 giving effect to Article 94(1) of United Nations Charter, 1945 — Law No 5 of 14 January 2013 in turn giving effect to Article 11 of Italian Constitution — Whether Italian courts lacking jurisdiction

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Decisions of international courts — Judgment of International Court of Justice regarding Italian court decisions denying immunity — Legislation to implement judgment — Whether constitutional — The law of Italy

International criminal law — Crimes against humanity — Universal jurisdiction — Criminal procedure — Private citizen seeking to commence prosecution in Australia for crimes against humanity under Crimes Act 1914 (Cth), Section 13(a) — Criminal Code (Cth), Section 268.11 providing that proceedings may only be prosecuted “in the name of the Attorney-General” and with the Attorney-General’s consent — Whether right to commence private prosecution ousted by contrary legislative intention

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Treaties — Rome Statute of International Criminal Court, 1998 — International Criminal Court Act 2002 (Cth) — Australia’s international obligations under Rome Statute — Offences against international law incorporated as offences under Australian law — Primacy of Australia’s right to exercise its jurisdiction with respect to crimes within jurisdiction of International Criminal Court — Whether private citizen having right to commence prosecution in Australia for crimes against humanity under Crimes Act 1914 (Cth) — The law of Australia

Damages — Compensatory damages — Damages awarded to victims of State-sponsored terrorism — Availability of foreign State-owned property for attachment in aid of execution of judgment for damages — Assets of central bank — Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act 1976 — Section 1610 — Exceptions to immunity of State-owned property from attachment in aid of execution — Section 1611 — Assets of central bank immune from attachment in aid of execution — Terrorism Risk Insurance Act 2002 — Section 201(a) — Assets of terrorist party to be made available in aid of execution or attachment — Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act 2012 — Blocked assets of Government of Iran to be made available to the plaintiffs — Whether Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act 2012 violating United States Constitution

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Treaties — Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations and Consular Rights, 1955 — Effect in municipal law — Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act 2012 — Whether United States statute violating 1955 Treaty

State immunity — Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act 1976 — Terrorism exception to State immunity — Whether foreign State-owned property immune from attachment in aid of execution of judgment for damages — Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act 1976 — Terrorism Risk Insurance Act 2002 — Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act 2012 — Whether United States municipal law removing immunity of Iranian State property constitutional

Terrorism — State-sponsored terrorism — Damages — Ability of victims of State-sponsored terrorism to receive compensatory damages — State immunity — Ability of victims of State-sponsored terrorism to turn over State-owned property in aid of execution of judgment for compensatory damages

Treaties — Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations and Consular Rights, 1955 — Effect in municipal law — Relationship between treaty and municipal law — Alleged conflict between treaty and municipal statute — Whether United States statute violating 1955 Treaty — The law of the United States

Aliens — Asylum claim — Refusal of asylum — Refusal of asylum overturned — Article 1F(c) of Refugee Convention, 1951 — Article 12(2)(c) of European Council Directive 2004/83 — Whether asylum seeker guilty of acts contrary to purposes and principles of United Nations — Whether conviction as member of leadership of terrorist organization sufficient — Whether commission or instigation of terrorist act required — Terrorism

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Treaties — Refugee Convention, 1951 — European Union law — European Council Directive 2004/83/EC — Framework Decision 2002/475 — United Nations — Relevant Security Council resolutions — Meaning of acts contrary to purposes and principles of United Nations

Treaties — Interpretation — Refugee Convention, 1951 — Article 1F(c) of Refugee Convention, 1951 — Principles and purposes of United Nations — Whether participation in terrorist group contrary to principles and purposes of United Nations — Meaning and scope — Relevant Security Council resolutions — Resolution 1624 — Resolution 1377 — Resolution 2178

Terrorism — United Nations — Meaning of acts contrary to purposes and principles of United Nations — Whether participation in terrorist group constituting acts contrary to principles and purposes of United Nations — Exclusion clause — Article 1F(c) of Refugee Convention, 1951 — Article 12(2)(c) of European Council Directive 2004/83 — Whether acts contrary to principles and purposes of United Nations confined to terrorist offences defined in Article 1(1) of Framework Decision 2002/475 — The law of the European Union

Arbitration — Arbitral Tribunal of International Chamber of Commerce — Arbitral award — Damages — Failure to pay amount awarded — Enforcement proceedings — United Kingdom — Arbitration Act 1996 — Service of proceedings commenced in accordance with Arbitration Act 1996 — Whether service of proceedings must comply with State Immunity Act 1978 — Difficulty effecting service on defendant State

Comity — Comity of nations as an interpretative principle — Subjecting State to jurisdiction of the courts of another State — Procedure for service — State Immunity Act 1978 — Obligations of States in the marketplace — Commercial legal obligations of States

Human rights — Treaties — European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Article 6 — Access to jurisdiction of the courts — Relationship between Article 6 and State immunity — Whether requirement for service through diplomatic channels impeding Article 6 rights

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Customary international law — United Nations Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property, 2004 — State Immunity Act 1978 — Treaty provisions as an aid to interpretation of domestic law — Whether international custom existing at the time of passage of domestic law

State immunity — State Immunity Act 1978 — Service — Procedure for service — Whether Section 12(1) applicable — Whether arbitration claim form or enforcement order a document required to be served — Whether court having discretion to dispense with service on defendant State — Exceptional circumstances preventing service through diplomatic channels — The law of England

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Treaties — Treaty of Guarantee between United Kingdom, Turkey, Greece and Cyprus, 1960 — Need for incorporation of international treaties — Effect of United Nations Security Council Resolutions 541 and 550 in international and domestic law

Recognition — Recognition of Northern Cyprus — Non-recognition of Northern Cyprus by United Kingdom — Acts amounting to recognition — Co-operation with law enforcement authorities of unrecognized entity

Jurisdiction — European Arrest Warrant — Jurisdiction over individuals from unrecognized States — Jurisdiction for crimes committed within England and Wales — Jurisdiction under European Convention on Human Rights, 1950

Human rights — Human Rights Act 1998 — European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Article 3 of European Convention prohibiting torture and inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment — Article 6 of European Convention providing right to a fair trial — Conditions within prisons and courts of Northern Cyprus — Evidence relevant in European Convention on Human Rights claims — Extent of territorial jurisdiction — Whether claimant within jurisdiction of United Kingdom for purposes of European Convention — Whether claimant being granted permission to challenge provision of material to Northern Cyprus police on this ground — The law of England

Diplomatic relations — Diplomats — Diplomats’ children — Serious concerns about welfare of children — Immunity — Immunity from civil proceedings — Whether diplomatic immunity preventing local authority from seeking interim care orders — Diplomatic Privileges Act 1964 — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 — Whether diplomatic immunity subject to prohibition on torture and inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment

Human rights — European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Article 3 — Inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment — Human Rights Act 1998 — Diplomatic immunity — Relationship between prohibition on torture and inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment and diplomatic immunity — Whether diplomatic immunity preventing local authority from seeking interim care order — Whether failure to protect children a breach of European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Whether taking action to protect children a breach of Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 — Declaration of incompatibility

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Treaties — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 — Diplomatic Privileges Act 1964 — Diplomatic immunity — European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 — Serious concerns about welfare of diplomat’s children — Relationship between diplomatic immunity and human rights — Whether Diplomatic Privileges Act 1964 and Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 incompatible with Human Rights Act 1998 and European Convention on Human Rights, 1950

Treaties — Interpretation — Context and purpose — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 — United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 — European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Whether Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 disturbed by provisions of United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 — Whether conflict between Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 and European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — The law of England

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Treaties — Effect in municipal law — International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966 — Article 12(4) — Right not to be arbitrarily deprived of right to enter one’s own country — Cancellation of permanent visa — Whether visa cancellation contrary to Article 12(4) right — Whether procedural fairness requiring respondent to notify visa-holder of possible non-compliance with Article 12(4) and to invite submissions on same prior to cancellation — Whether potential non-compliance with Article 12(4) is mandatory relevant consideration — Decision in Teoh — Effect — United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 — Relevance

Aliens — Visa cancellation — Migration Act 1958 (Cth) — Australia’s international obligations — Whether Minister required to consider international obligations if not arising from representations made on behalf of affected person — International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966 — Article 12(4) — Whether decision of Minister consistent with Article 12(4) — Decision in Teoh — Effect — United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 — Relevance — The law of Australia

Territory — Non-self-governing territory — Western Sahara — Article 73 of United Nations Charter — Morocco’s occupation of Western Sahara — Whether Morocco exercising sovereignty over the territory — International Court of Justice Western Sahara Advisory Opinion — Whether cargo on board MV NM Cherry Blossom belonging to people of Western Sahara

Territory — Right to self-determination — Sovereignty of Western Sahara over natural resources — Exploitation of natural resources in non-self-governing territory — Whether natural resources from Western Sahara can be exploited and sold by Moroccan entities — United Nations framework for the lawful exploitation of the natural resources of a non-self-governing territory — Exploitation of natural resources needing to have the consent of, or benefit, the people of a non-self-governing territory — Whether natural resources mined with consent of people of Western Sahara — Whether exploitation to benefit of people of Western Sahara

State immunity — Whether Morocco’s legal interests affected — Act of State doctrine — Relationship between act of State doctrine and international law — Nature and ambit of act of State doctrine in South African law — Whether claim justiciable in South African courts

Relationship of international law and municipal law — State immunity — Act of State doctrine — Whether any public international law principle preventing South African court from adjudicating matter — Whether adjudication by South African court could affect Morocco’s legal rights — The law of South Africa

Economics, trade and finance — Free trade agreements — International investment — Canada–European Union Comprehensive Economic Trade Agreement, 2016 — Multilateral investment tribunal — Investor rights — Whether creation of multilateral investment tribunal a transfer of State sovereignty — Competences of the European Union — Shared competence of indirect foreign investment

International tribunals — Comprehensive Economic Trade Agreement Tribunal — Proposed multilateral investment tribunal — Jurisdiction of international tribunal — Jurisdiction of domestic courts — Whether creation of international tribunal ceding jurisdictional competence from domestic courts — Nature of jurisdiction exercised by international tribunals

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Treaties — Ratification — Comprehensive Economic Trade Agreement, 2016 — European Union — Ireland — Irish Constitution — Whether ratification of Comprehensive Economic Trade Agreement having effect in domestic legal order — Whether ratification of Comprehensive Economic Trade Agreement transferring State sovereignty

Treaties — Application — Ratification — Free trade agreements — International investment — Canada–European Union Comprehensive Economic Trade Agreement, 2016 — Whether creating rights and obligations on level of international law only — Irish Constitution — Whether ratification of Comprehensive Economic Trade Agreement, 2016 by State in proposed manner unconstitutional — The law of Ireland

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Treaties — European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Judgment of European Court of Human Rights — Whether providing ground for reassessment of conviction — Estonian Code of Criminal Procedure — Reopening of municipal proceedings — Estonian Constitution 1992 — Role of treaties in municipal legal order — Whether treaties having priority over municipal law in case of conflict — Duty to guarantee rights under European Convention — Amendment of municipal procedural law — Review of Estonian court cases — Whether reopening of municipal proceedings justified — Whether other effective means of remedy

Human rights — No punishment without law — European Convention on Human Rights, 1950, Article 7(1) — Reopening of municipal proceedings — The law of Estonia

Aliens — Refugee status — Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951 — Article 1F(a) — Exclusion from protection — Involvement in terrorist activities in home country — Removal of migrants to home country breaching Article 3 of European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Migrants granted leave to remain in United Kingdom — Whether granting of indefinite leave to remain appropriate — Whether restricted leave to remain policy unlawful

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Treaties — Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951 — Article 1F(a) — Refugee status — Exclusion from protection — Involvement in terrorist activities in home country — Removal of migrants to home country breaching Article 3 of European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Migrants granted leave to remain — Long and lawful residence in the United Kingdom since involvement in terrorist offences — Whether constituting exceptional circumstance warranting settlement in the United Kingdom — Whether outweighing United Kingdom’s policy objectives not to provide safe haven to terrorists

Terrorism — Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951 — Article 1F(a) — Refugee status — Exclusion from protection — Involvement in terrorist activities in home country — Migrants granted leave to remain in United Kingdom — Long and lawful residence in the United Kingdom since involvement in terrorist offences — Whether constituting exceptional circumstance warranting settlement in the United Kingdom — Whether outweighing United Kingdom’s policy objectives not to provide safe haven to terrorists — Whether granting of indefinite leave to remain appropriate — United Kingdom’s policy objectives not to provide safe haven to terrorists — Whether restricted leave to remain policy unlawful

Human rights — Right to privacy and family life — European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Article 8 — Whether conditions imposed upon migrants under restricted leave to remain policy interfering with their right to privacy and family life — Immigration Act 1971 — The law of England

Human rights — Freedom of expression — Freedom of the press — Legal restrictions limiting freedom of expression — Penal sanctions in laws which limit freedom of expression — Whether Section 24 of Cybercrimes Act 2015 violating Article 9(2) of African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 1981 and Article 19(3) of International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966 — Whether Nigeria violating applicant’s right to freedom of expression

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Treaties — Human rights treaties — Treaty obligations — Cybercrimes Act 2015 — Compliance of Nigeria’s cybercrime law with regional and international treaty obligations — African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 1981, Article 9(2) — International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966, Article 19(3) — Revised Treaty of the Economic Community of West African States, 1993 — Whether Nigeria violating applicant’s right to freedom of expression

International tribunals — Jurisdiction — Community Court of Justice of Economic Community of West African States — Admissibility of application — Whether Court having jurisdiction to examine domestic legislation of ECOWAS Member States — Whether allegation of human rights violation — Whether Court competent to examine the cause

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Treaties — Treaty not incorporated into municipal law — Whether minister required to take treaty into account — United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992 — Paris Agreement on Climate Change, 2015 — Decision to designate third runway at Heathrow Airport — Airports National Policy Statement — Planning Act 2008 — Whether Paris Agreement taken into account by Secretary of State for Transport — Whether Secretary of State obliged to take Paris Agreement into account in designating Airports National Policy Statement — Directive 2001/42/EC — Whether Secretary of State obliged to refer to Paris Agreement in environmental report

Environment — Treaties — Climate change — Greenhouse gases — Paris Agreement on Climate Change, 2015 — Designation of third runway at Heathrow Airport — Whether failure to take Paris Agreement into account vitiating decision to designate third runway — Whether Secretary of State obliged to assess non-carbon dioxide greenhouse gas emissions

Human rights — Treaties — European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Article 2 — Article 8 — Whether failure to take Paris Agreement on Climate Change, 2015 into account constituting unacceptable risk to life and to private life — The law of the United Kingdom

State immunity — Functional immunity — Foreign State officials — Immunity from foreign criminal jurisdiction — Whether functional immunity applying to subordinate State officials — Customary international law

International criminal law — War crimes — Torture — Humiliating and degrading treatment — Gravity threshold — Universal jurisdiction — Afghanistan — Taliban — Afghan military

Jurisdiction — Universal jurisdiction — War crimes — Functional immunity — Foreign State officials — Immunity from foreign criminal jurisdiction — Whether functional immunity applying to subordinate State officials for war crimes committed abroad — Whether precluding criminal prosecution by domestic court

Relationship of international law and municipal law — General rules of international law — State immunity — War crimes committed by foreign State subordinate official in exercise of official functions to detriment of foreign national — Functional immunity — Whether precluding criminal prosecution by domestic court

War and armed conflict — Non-international armed conflict — Afghan military in conflict with non-State armed groups, including Taliban — Law of armed conflict — The law of Germany