Food production and consumption need to substantially change to meet global environmental and public health goals. Increasing grain legume consumption in most countries is key to providing nourishing food for all while contributing to cropping system sustainability with relatively low environmental impact. But what actions have the potential to increase such consumption? The wide knowledge of how to cultivate grain legumes among Swedish farmers, low current consumption in most of the population, and prior shifts in dietary patterns make Sweden an interesting context for studying the potential increase of grain legumes in diets. We identify system-level actions in peer-reviewed and grey literature with the potential to increase grain legume consumption and apply the leverage points framework to evaluate the transformative potential of these actions for the food system in Sweden. Our findings show that most actions suggested in the literature so far focus on increased production, while fewer suggestions integrate production and consumption. Few actions address the deeper leverage points with most transformative potential compared with those with less transformative potential. We qualitatively analyze the actions and develop a chain of leverage illustrating how several actions together could be combined to support change at the deepest leverage point, creating social norms for the consumption of healthy foods. The chain includes developing new tools, facilities and products; changing standards; building feedback loops; changing the food environment; building new information flows between actors; and reforming the value chain. To implement the actions identified in this analysis, a range of value chain actors and supportive policies at the national and European Union levels will be needed.

The ongoing nutrition transition in lower- and middle-income countries (LMIC) in South East Asia may have a positive impact on protein nutrition. This study assessed the diversity of plant and animal protein food sources in relation to essential amino acid (EAA) adequacy in a population-based sample (N 1665) in Indonesia. Dietary intakes from in-person 24 h recalls provided data on energy and protein intakes (in g/d) from plants (grains, legumes), meat, poultry and fish, and eggs and dairy. Protein diversity scores were based on the number of protein food sources over 24 h. EAA scores were the ratio of amino acid intakes to recommended values. Protein diversity and EAA scores were then compared across multiple socio-demographic indices. Analysis of variance and χ2 tests were used to test for differences among groups. Energy intakes were 1678 kcal/d for men and 1435 kcal/d for women. Average protein intakes (and prevalence of inadequacy) were 59⋅4 g/d (41⋅7 %) for men and 51⋅5 g/d (51⋅1 %) for women. In regression analyses, higher protein diversity scores were associated with higher protein intakes, more animal protein and less plant protein and with higher EAA scores. Lower protein diversity scores were associated with lower intakes of lysine, leucine and valine relative to requirements, as well as with lower EAA, rural settings, less wealth and less modernisation. Greater diversity of animal protein food sources, observed among groups of higher socio-economic status, was linked to better amino acid adequacy and protein nutrition.