Radiotherapy (RT) plays a key role in the tumour microenvironment (TME), impacting the immune response via cellular and humoral immunity. RT can induce local immunity to modify the TME. It can stimulate dendritic cell maturation and T-cell infiltration. Moreover, B cells, macrophages and other immune cells may also be affected. Tertiary lymphoid structure (TLS) is a unique structure within the TME and a class of aggregates containing T cells, B cells and other immune cells. The maturation of TLS is determined by the presence of mature dendritic cells, the density of TLS is determined by the number of immune cells. TLS maturation and density both affect the antitumour immune response in the TME. This review summarized the recent research on the impact and the role of RT on TLS, including the changes of TLS components and formation conditions and the mechanism of how RT affects TLS and transforms the TME. RT may promote TLS maturation and density to modify the TME regarding enhanced antitumour immunity.

Nutrients can impact and regulate cellular metabolism and cell function which is particularly important for the activation and function of diverse immune subsets. Among the critical nutrients for immune cell function and fate, glutamine is possibly the most widely recognised immunonutrient, playing key roles in TCA cycle, heat shock protein responses and antioxidant systems. In addition, glutamine is also involved with inter-organ ammonia transport, and this is particularly important for not only immune cells, but also to the brain, especially in catabolic situations such as critical care and extenuating exercise. The well characterised fall in blood glutamine availability has been the main reason for studies to investigate the possible effects of glutamine replacement via supplementation but many of the results are in poor agreement. At the same time, a range of complex pathways involved in glutamine metabolism have been revealed via supplementation studies. This article will briefly review the function of glutamine in the immune system, with emphasis on metabolic mechanisms, and the emerging role of glutamine in the brain glutamate/gamma-amino butyric acid cycle. In addition, relevant aspects of glutamine supplementation are discussed.

Immune cells play a key role in maintaining renal dynamic balance and dealing with renal injury. The physiological and pathological functions of immune cells are intricately connected to their metabolic characteristics. However, immunometabolism in chronic kidney disease (CKD) is not fully understood. Pathophysiologically, disruption of kidney immune cells homeostasis causes inflammation and tissue damage via triggering metabolic reprogramming. The diverse metabolic characteristics of immune cells at different stages of CKD are strongly associated with their different pathological effect. In this work, we reviewed the metabolic characteristics of immune cells (macrophages, natural killer cells, T cells, natural killer T cells and B cells) and several non-immune cells, as well as potential treatments targeting immunometabolism in CKD. We attempt to elaborate on the metabolic signatures of immune cells and their intimate correlation with non-immune cells in CKD.

Diabetes is a devastating global health problem and is considered a predisposing factor for lung injury progression. Furthermore, previous reports of the authors revealed the role of mediastinal fat-associated lymphoid clusters (MFALCs) in advancing respiratory diseases. However, no reports concerning the role of MFALCs on the development of lung injury in diabetes have been published. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the correlations between diabetes and the development of MFALCs and the progression of lung injury in a streptozotocin-induced diabetic mouse model. Furthermore, immunohistochemical analysis for immune cells (CD3+ T-lymphocytes, B220+ B-lymphocytes, Iba1+ macrophages, and Gr1+ granulocytes), vessels markers (CD31+ endothelial cells and LYVE-1+ lymphatic vessels “LVs”), and inflammatory markers (TNF-α and IL-5) was performed. In comparison to the control group, the diabetic group showed lung injury development with a significant increase in MFALC size, immune cells, LVs, and inflammatory marker, and a considerable decrease of CD31+ endothelial cells in both lung and MFALCs was observed. Furthermore, the blood glucose level showed significant positive correlations with MFALCs size, lung injury, immune cells, inflammatory markers, and LYVE-1+ LVs in lungs and MFALCs. Thus, we suggest that the development of MFALCs and LVs could contribute to lung injury progression in diabetic conditions.

Specific features of the immunohistochemical and ultrastructural organization of the hemopoietic head-kidney (HK) in adult Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes, 1844) were investigated using light and transmission electron microscopy. The HK of grass carp possessed all developmental stages of leucocytes and erythrocytes, as well as dendritic cells and epithelial reticular cells. The rodlet cells were expressed α-smooth muscle actin (SMA). In addition, macrophages were the most numerous cells in the HK, which aggregated into structures called melanomacrophage centers (MMCs). On contrary, the chromaffin and interrenal cells (ICs) were mixed and organized into large anastomosing cords, which lined the posterior cardinal veins of the HK, and associated with many blood capillaries. The ICs displayed the characteristic features of steroid-producing cells. Three types of chromaffin cells: adrenaline, noradrenaline, and small granule-containing cells were observed in the HK. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive sustentacular cells were marked among the chromaffin cells. Hemopoietic cells, immune cells, MMCs, rodlet cells, in addition to three types of chromaffin cells and one type of interrenal cells in the HK were correlated with the functional significance of the fish concerned.

Many studies have been carried out to investigate the morphological structure of the syrinx in many bird species. However, the cellular organization of the syrinx in the fowls and pigeons is still unclear. The current study revealed that in fowl and pigeon, the syrinx is formed of three main parts including tympanum (cranial) part, intermediate syringeal part, and bronchosyringeal (caudal) part, in addition to pessulus and tympaniform membranes. A great variation in the structural characteristics of syrinx of fowl and pigeon was recorded. In fowl, the tympaniform membranes showed a characteristic distribution of elastic and collagen fibers which increase the elasticity of tympaniform membranes. Moreover, the bony pessulus helps the medial tympaniform membranes to be stiffer, vibrate more strongly so that louder sound will be generated. In pigeon, the lateral tympaniform membrane is of greater thickness so that the oscillation of this membrane is reduced and the amplitude is lower. Moreover, the pessulus is smaller in size and is formed mainly of connective tissue core (devoid of cartilaginous or bony plates), resulting in the failure of stretching and vibrating of the medial tympaniform membranes, that leads to the generation of deeper sound. Electron microscopic examination of the syringes of fowls and pigeons revealed numerous immune cells including dendritic cells, plasma cells, mast cells, and lymphocytes distributed within syringeal mucosa and invading the syringeal epithelium. Telocytes were first recorded in the syrinx of fowls and pigeons in this study. They presented two long telopodes that made up frequent close contacts with other neighboring telocytes, immune cells, and blood capillaries.

Immune dysfunction can be either at the humoral or cellular levels and is mediated by a myriad of factors including virus-induced immunosuppression. Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) affects domesticated poultry and causing health problems mainly due to prolonged immunosuppression. Destruction of the immunoglobulin-producing cells is the principal cause of IBDV-induced immunosuppression, which leads to significant impairment of the primary antibody responses. Due to these effects, IBDV infection not only increases the susceptibility of poultry to other viral infections but predisposes the host to several other bacteria of variable pathologies. The IBDV-induced immune-suppression is well-known phenomenon, however, recently there have been significant advancements in understanding the molecular mechanisms of this immune-suppression. This review discuss current updates regarding the immunotoxic and immunosuppressive nature of IBDV in the poultry and highlights areas requiring future research attentions that may help to establish foundations for effective and improved vaccines against IBDV.

Satellite glial cells (SGCs) undergo phenotypic changes and divide the following injury into a peripheral nerve. Nerve injury, also elicits an immune response and several antigen-presenting cells are found in close proximity to SGCs. Silencing SCG-specific molecules involved in intercellular transport (Connexin 43) or glutamate recycling (glutamine synthase) can dramatically alter nociceptive responses of normal and nerve-injured rats. Transducing SGCs with glutamic acid decarboxylase can produce analgesia in models of trigeminal pain. Taken together these data suggest that SGCs may play a role in the genesis or maintenance of pain and open a range of new possibilities for curing neuropathic pain.

Immunopathological and ultrastructural studies were carried out on the gut of 30 specimens of powan Coregonus lavaretus (L.) from Lake Piediluco, Italy. The digestive tracts of 10 (33·3%) of the powan were found to harbour an acanthocephalan Dentitruncus truttae (Sinzar 1955). The numerous trunk spines of D. truttae reduced the number of mucosal folds near the parasite site of infection. The acanthocephalan induced hyperplasia and hypertrophy of the intestinal mucous cells and many worms were surrounded with an adherent mucous gel. Near the site of acanthocephalan attachment, the number of mucous cells was significantly higher (P<0·01) in comparison to those found in uninfected intestines. Rodlet cells (RCs) were present in the epithelial layer in both infected and uninfected fish, with no significant difference in the numbers observed (P>0·05). In infected intestine, mast cells were more abundant than in uninfected gut (P<0·01). Migration of the mast cells and their intense degranulation at the site of infection were suggested. Immunohistochemical tests applied to sections of intestinal tissue of both infected and uninfected powan revealed that the parasitized C. lavaretus had a larger number of mast cells positive for met-enkephalin and serotonin antisera.