An X-ray diffraction study of aqueous emulsions of a Na-montmorillonite shows that: (1) At low water content, the d-spacings of the montmorillonite increased stepwise with increasing water content; (2) At high water content, sharp (001) peaks due to regular stacking of montmorillonite layers were not detectable, but broad, halo patterns were observed in the low-angle scattering region; and (3) The addition of Ca2+ or H+ to the aqueous emulsions caused Ca-montmorillonite or H-montmorillonite crystals to form. A zig-zag column model of montmorillonite layers fits the observed data for aqueous emulsions of Na-montmorillonite.

Microcapsules are successfully used in various applications such as self-healing, drug delivery and military camouflage. The shells of the microcapsules based on the traditional surfactant-stabilized emulsion template method are often single organic materials. The surfactants generally have insufficient stability against demulsification during preparation of the microcapsules. In the present study, kaolinite was used as an emulsifier for stabilizing Pickering emulsions and subsequently as an enhancer for forming microcapsules. Kaolinite-armoured polyurea microcapsules were fabricated based on the interfacial polymerization of isophorone diisocyanate at the oil–water interfaces of kaolinite-stabilized Pickering emulsions. The prepared microcapsules with core–shell structure were spherical and exhibited good dispersibility in anhydrous ethanol. The shell thickness (~0.5–1.0 μm) and diameter (~20.0–160.0 μm) of kaolinite-armoured polyurea microcapsules may be tailored by varying the dosages of isophorone diisocyanate and kaolinite and the emulsifying speed of the high-shear homogenizer. Hence, the encapsulation and release performance of microcapsules may be controlled. The kaolinite particles were embedded and armoured in a polyurea matrix. The formed kaolinite-embedded and -armoured polyurea structures might prolong the release of the encapsulated lipophilic Sudan Red (III) from 20 to 45 h. The microcapsules have controllable encapsulation and release characteristics for lipophilic compounds and are cost effective, making them suitable pesticides.

The herbicide 2,4-D is used in a variety of cropping systems, especially in grasses because it is a selective postemergence broadleaf herbicide. However, the most common formulation (2,4-D dimethylamine) is antagonized when mixed in hard water. The objective of this research was to determine which formulations of 2,4-D or premixes of various formulations of synthetic auxin herbicides are subject to hard water antagonism. Formulations surveyed for hard water antagonism in the first experiment included 2,4-D dimethylamine, 2,4-D diethanolamine, 2,4-D monomethylamine, 2,4-D isopropylamine salt, 2,4-D choline salt, 2,4-D isooctyl ester, and 2,4-D ethylhexyl ester. Synthetic auxin formulation types in the second experiment included water-soluble, emulsifiable concentrates and emulsion-in-water. All formulations were mixed with both soft and hard water (600 mg CaCO3 L−1) and applied to dandelions to determine whether antagonism occurred in hard water. Water-soluble (amine and choline) 2,4-D formulations were antagonized by hard water, but water-insoluble (ester) 2,4-D formulations were not antagonized. Similar results were found by formulation type with water-soluble synthetic auxin premixes antagonized but emulsifiable concentrates not antagonized. Furthermore, water-soluble salt formulations were not antagonized when formulated in premixes with other synthetic auxin herbicides as an emulsion-in-water. This research demonstrates that all 2,4-D water-soluble formulations and water-soluble premixes with phenoxycarboxylic acid herbicides are subject to hard water antagonism. Formulations of 2,4-D containing emulsifying agents protect against antagonism by the water-insoluble nature of ingredients in their formulation.

In greenhouse experiments, unrefined corn oil was tested as an adjuvant with the mycoherbicidal fungus, Colletotrichum truncatum. A1:1 (V/V) fungus/corn oil tank mixture extended by at least 70 h the period of time in which the fungus remains infective between inoculation and the onset of dew. This formulation also reduced the dew period requirements for optimal weed pathogenesis and mortality from 12 h to 2 h, and reduced the required spray volume by 100-fold, from 500 L/ha to 5 L/ha. These results suggest that formulating C. truncatum in unrefined corn oil greatly improves the bioherbicidal potential of this pathogen.

Amaranthus retroflexus L. is a common annual weed worldwide. It can be found in a wide range of habitats and causes substantial yield reduction in many crops mainly through competition. Alternaria spp. are airborne molds that are considered to have potential for the biological control of weeds. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of spore concentration, host-plant growth stage, dew period, and temperature on the pathogenicity of three Alternaria alternata isolates against A. retroflexus. The pathogenicity of A. alternata increased with increasing spore concentration and length of dew period. A spore concentration of 107 spores ml−1 in a rapeseed oil emulsion and given a 24 h dew period caused 100% mortality of A. retroflexus plants at the four-leaf stage. Infection and mortality in older plants (>four-leaf stage) was lower. The highest levels of plant mortality were obtained at post-inoculum temperatures between 20 and 30 C. These experiments confirm the potential of A. alternata as a mycoherbicide under specific environmental conditions.

In citrus, weedy grasses compete for moisture, nutrients, and light and can inhibit the growth of young trees and delay fruit production. These weeds are difficult to control, either because of their tolerance to available herbicides or due to growth habits that enable them to resist other control practices. Control of seven such weedy grasses (southern sandbur, large crabgrass, crowfootgrass, guineagrass, Texas panicum, johnsongrass, and yellow foxtail) with a mixture of three fungal pathogens, termed the multiple-pathogen strategy, was field tested in 1996 and 1998. Three fungi indigenous to Florida, Drechslera gigantea, Exserohilum longirostratum, and E. rostratum, isolated from large crabgrass, crowfootgrass, and johnsongrass respectively, were used. Two separate field studies were conducted: one study with seven grasses transplanted and grown within each plot (grass mixture field trial) and another study on a population of guineagrass alone present in a naturally infested field (guineagrass field trial). The objectives of this study were to (1) evaluate the field performance of D. gigantea, E. longirostratum, and E. rostratum individually and in a mixture to control the seven transplanted weedy grasses (grass mixture) and a population of guineagrass in a naturally infested field, respectively, and (2) compare the effectiveness of three carriers (water, Metamucil®, and an invert emulsion) on the bioherbicidal efficacy under field conditions. The fungi were applied as foliar sprays, each pathogen alone or in a mixture of the three fungi (1:1:1, v/v/v, for a total of 5 × 105 spores ml –1) in water, 0.5% aqueous Metamucil®, or an emulsion containing Sunspray® 6E. During the 14-wk experimental period, one or two additional sprays of all treatments were applied. Disease severity was recorded weekly for 4 to 6 wk after the initial spray (WAI). Maximum disease severities were obtained in emulsion-inoculum treatments, and were higher than those in the water-inoculum and the Metamucil-inoculum treatments. The pathogen mixture was equally effective as the individual pathogens in controlling the weeds tested. In the 1996 trial, 6 WAI, disease severity on grasses inoculated with D. gigantea spore suspensions in emulsion ranged from 78 to 100%, with E. longirostratum 90 to 100%, E. rostratum 79 to 100%, and the mixture 74 to 100%. In the 1998 trial, 4 WAI, disease severity on grasses inoculated with D. gigantea spore suspensions in emulsion ranged from 45 to 98%, with E. longirostratum 45 to 98%, E. rostratum 34 to 98%, and the mixture 32 to 98.5%. Thus, it was possible to manage all seven weedy grasses under field conditions using an emulsion-based inoculum preparation with the individual pathogens as well as the mixture of pathogens. The same three fungal pathogens were field tested for their ability to manage populations of guineagrass in a naturally infested field. The experimental design and treatments were identical to the field testing with the seven transplanted grasses. Two applications of an emulsion-based inoculum preparation of each pathogen or the mixture of pathogens effectively controlled guineagrass for up to 10 wk, with no regrowth.

The physico-chemical and interfacial properties of fat emulsions influence lipid digestion and may affect postprandial responses. The aim of the present study was to determine the effects of the modification of the interfacial layer of a fat emulsion by cross-linking on postprandial metabolic and appetite responses. A total of fifteen healthy individuals (26·5 (sem 6·9) years and BMI 21·9 (sem 2·0) kg/m2) participated in a cross-over design experiment in which they consumed two isoenergetic (1924 kJ (460 kcal)) and isovolumic (250 g) emulsions stabilised with either sodium caseinate (Cas) or transglutaminase-cross-linked sodium caseinate (Cas-TG) in a randomised order. Blood samples were collected from the individuals at baseline and for 6 h postprandially for the determination of serum TAG and plasma NEFA, cholecystokinin (CCK), glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), glucose and insulin responses. Appetite was assessed using visual analogue scales. Postprandial TAG and NEFA responses and gastric emptying (GE) rates were comparable between the emulsions. CCK increased more after the ingestion of Cas-TG than after the ingestion of Cas (P< 0·05), while GLP-1 responses did not differ between the two test emulsions. Glucose and insulin profiles were lower after consuming Cas-TG than after consuming Cas (P< 0·05). The overall insulin, glucose and CCK responses, expressed as areas above/under the curve, did not differ significantly between the Cas and Cas-TG meal conditions. Satiety ratings were reduced and hunger, desire to eat and thirst ratings increased more after the ingestion of Cas-TG than after the ingestion of Cas (P< 0·05). The present results suggest that even a subtle structural modification of the interfacial layer of a fat emulsion can alter the early postprandial profiles of glucose, insulin, CCK, appetite and satiety through decreased protein digestion without affecting significantly on GE or overall lipid digestion.

Several studies have been carried out in order to describe the impact ofwater-contaminated lubricants on lubrication performance. One approach considers thewater-contaminated oil as a homogeneous lubricant with physical characteristics varyingwith water concentration. The presented work is being achieved in order to experimentallyvalidate this theory. First investigations showed that the variation of contaminatedlubricant viscosity has the most significant effect on lubricating performance.Consequently, the lubricant viscosity is the only parameter taken into account in thisstudy. Thus, based on the rheological measurements, water-in-oil emulsion viscosity hasbeen modelled according to water concentration and temperature. Water concentration wasconsidered relatively to total mass of oil: the mass concentration varied then from 0 to7% and temperature from 10 to 80 °C. Viscosity modelling was then used to perform thenumerical simulations of a hydrodynamic thrust bearing supplied with water contaminatedoil. Finally, the experimental validation will be done by measuring various bearingcharacteristics like the film/pad temperature, the film thickness and the friction torqueon a tilting pad thrust bearing test rig.

The bioavailability of α-linolenic acid (ALA) from flaxseed oil in an emulsified form v. a non-emulsified form was investigated by using two complementary approaches: the first one dealt with the characterisation of the flaxseed oil emulsion in in vitro gastrointestinal-like conditions; the second one compared the intestinal absorption of ALA in rats fed the two forms of the oil. The in vitro study on emulsified flaxseed oil showed that decreasing the pH from 7·3 to 1·5 at the physiological temperature (37°C) induced instantaneous oil globule coalescence. Some phase separation was observed under acidic conditions that vanished after further neutralisation. The lecithin used to stabilise the emulsions inhibited TAG hydrolysis by pancreatic lipase. In contrast, lipid solubilisation by bile salts (after lipase and phospholipase hydrolysis) was favoured by preliminary oil emulsification. The in vivo absorption of ALA in thoracic lymph duct-cannulated rats fed flaxseed oil, emulsified or non-emulsified, was quantified. Oil emulsification significantly favoured the rate and extent of ALA recovery as measured by the maximum ALA concentration in the lymph (Cmax = 14 mg/ml at 3 h in the emulsion group v. 9 mg/ml at 5 h in the oil group; P < 0·05). Likewise, the area under the curve of the kinetics was significantly higher in the emulsion group (48 mg × h/ml for rats fed emulsion v. 26 mg × h/ml for rats fed oil; P < 0·05). On the whole, ALA bioavailability was improved with flaxseed oil ingested in an emulsified state. Data obtained from the in vitro studies helped to partly interpret the physiological results.

A yogurt mix (2 g fat and 17 g solids/100 g) was supplemented with an algae oil emulsion to provide 500 mg ω-3 fatty acids per 272 g serving of yogurt white mass. The emulsion was added to the yogurt mix either before or after the homogenization step and prior to pasteurization. It was then flavoured with a strawberry fruit base and fermented and stored for up to three weeks. The oxidative deterioration of the products was determined by hydroperoxide measurements and by trained and consumer sensory evaluations. The hydroperoxide content of the supplemented yogurts increased over the storage treatment and was unaffected by the stage of addition. The trained panel could distinguish a stronger fishy flavour in both of the supplemented yogurts after 22 days storage, but the consumer panel rated both control and supplemented samples similarly, as ‘moderately liked’.

Hen egg proteins are desirable ingredients of many foods. Today, eggs are widely distributed in international trade and the egg industry is an important segment of the world food industry. Hen egg proteins have unique functional properties such as gelling, foaming (egg white) and emulsifying (egg yolk) properties. This review describes the recent advances in molecular basis of the development of these functional properties as well as technical development of new approaches for improving the functional properties of egg proteins. A better understanding of structure-function relationship of egg protein functionality in food system will enable us for tailoring food protein for specific uses.

Lignocaine added to the anaesthetic preparation Diprivan® reduces propofol induced pain on injection. This effect is due to a drop in pH which decreases the content of propofol in the aqueous phase of the soya bean emulsion. This in turn changes the electrostatic forces in the emulsion and destabilization occurs. The effect of lignocaine on the anaesthetic potency of propofol was validated in a randomized blind study in the rat. The induction dose of 1% propofol mixed with 1% lignocaine (10+1) was significantly higher when compared with the induction dose of propofol 1% given after a separate injection of 1% lignocaine (9.4±5.5 vs. 5.6±5.2 mg; P<0.05). The duration of sleep was shorter in rats injected with propofol 1% mixed with lignocaine 1% (10+1) compared with those given 1% lignocaine and 1% propofol in separate injections (160±181 vs. 375±202 s; P<0.05). The anaesthetic potency of propofol was not significantly changed by the addition of either saline or hydrochloric acid. The anaesthesia inducing effect was not time-dependent. A similar lower potency was observed for a solution stored for 4 h compared with one freshly prepared, although sleeping time was longer (9.2±6.8 mg; 428±110 s) as compared with the 4 h mixture. The results indicate that lignocaine altered the propofol preparation. The reduced anaesthetic potency of propofol after addition of lignocaine is not due to the resultant drop in pH, which is known to occur.

The reduction in propofol-induced pain on injection caused by the addition of lignocaine results mainly from a drop in pH, which reduces the concentration of propofol in the aqueous phase of the emulsion. It is not an effect of the local anaesthetic per se. Propofol emulsion mixed with lignocaine destabilizes within hours. We mixed 10 parts of propofol 1% emulsion with one part of 0.0064 m HCl or 0.013 m HCl, respectively. These mixtures were stored for 3 months and compared with a freshly prepared solution of propofol 1% emulsion and saline, in the same proportion, regarding their ability to induce anaesthesia in the rat. There was no significant difference in the amount of propofol required to induce anaesthesia, nor was there any difference in recovery time between the three groups.

Field trials of various neem formulations were conducted to determine their effectiveness for the control of some major pests of eggplant, Solanum melogena (L), okra, Hibiscus esculentus (L) and cowpea, Vigna unguiculata (L), Walp. Various concentrations of neem emulsion reduced incidence of Selepa docilis (Butler), Urentius sp. and Zonocerus variegatus (L), on eggplant. Damage caused by Sylepta derogata (F), defoliator of okra, was less in plots treated with 5, 10 and 20% aqueous-methanol extracts of defatted neem cake. Moreover, neem seed cake applied as dust enhanced cowpea yield.

DDT and BHC were used prior to 1954 as grain protectant but gradually malathion was adopted as prophylactic spray at 50 mg/m2. However, during the continuous usage, doses were enhanced up to 150 mg/m2 to meet the level of effective kill. Toxicity studies on different surfaces, seeds, moisture content level, different insects and stages and emergence of resistance were carried out with respect to malathion and several newer insecticides. DDVP was incorporated in spray schedule at 100 mg/m2. Toxicity data on 17 insecticides, three formulations, persistence on six surfaces and three seeds, tests on 13 insects have been utilized to evolve a strategy for future developments of a prophylactic insecticides. Demerits of switching to new insecticides without broad-based toxicity data have also been advocated. Insects, such as, larva of Trogoderma granarium Everts and adults of Tribolium castaneum (Hbst.), Rhizopertha dominica Fab., Callosobruchus maculatus Fab., Lasioderma serricorne Fab. and Sitophilus oryzae Linn, among beetles and Ephestia cautella (Wlk.) and Corcyra cephalonica Staint from moths were found least susceptible to most of the insecticides. Etrimfos and deltamethrin were adjudged superior for large scale use specially as wettable powder and adjudged suitable to sub-tropical conditions. The paper also provides information on currently used insecticides in India, methods of grain storage at rural and organized level and various constraints faced in the developing countries.