Ticks are important ectoparasites of domestic and wild animals, and tick infestations economically impact cattle production worldwide. Control of cattle tick infestations has been primarily by application of acaricides which has resulted in selection of resistant ticks and environmental pollution. Herein we discuss data from tick vaccine application in Australia, Cuba, Mexico and other Latin American countries. Commercial tick vaccines for cattle based on the Boophilus microplus Bm86 gut antigen have proven to be a feasible tick control method that offers a cost-effective, environmentally friendly alternative to the use of acaricides. Commercial tick vaccines reduced tick infestations on cattle and the intensity of acaricide usage, as well as increasing animal production and reducing transmission of some tick-borne pathogens. Although commercialization of tick vaccines has been difficult owing to previous constraints of antigen discovery, the expense of testing vaccines in cattle, and company restructuring, the success of these vaccines over the past decade has clearly demonstrated their potential as an improved method of tick control for cattle. Development of improved vaccines in the future will be greatly enhanced by new and efficient molecular technologies for antigen discovery and the urgent need for a tick control method to reduce or replace the use of acaricides, especially in regions where extensive tick resistance has occurred.

Ticks have always been a major obstacle to livestock production due to the devastating diseases which they transmit especially in the tropics. The control of ticks which has relied heavily on the use of acaricides is now faced with serious problems e.g. increased resistance in ticks, high costs and toxicity to the environment. Over the last few decades, alternative tick control methods which utilize natural factors with little or no acaricides have been sought and those which have shown some promise are discussed in this paper. They include release or conservation of biological control agents e.g. parasitoids, predators and pathogens; anti-tick grasses and pasture spelling. The possibility of integrating some of these factors into low cost environmentally-safe tick control strategies affordable by resource limited farmers is also discussed.

Literature on the distribution, biology, seasonal population fluctuations, economic importance, acaricidal susceptibility and measures for the control of the cattle ticks Boophilus microplus Canst., Amblyomma cajennense Fab., A. variegatum. Fab. in the Caribbean has been critically reviewed. The ticks, which inflict about $62 million annual loss on the region's livestock industry, are still susceptible to acaricides, despite a few populations of B. microplus showing 31- to 227-fold resistance to lindane and 15- to 67-fold resistance to carbaryl, chlorfenvinphos, dimethoate and crotoxyphos.

The screwworm, Cochliomyia hominivorax Coq. is widespread, except in Puerto Rico and Curacao, from where it has been eradicated. The annual cost of surveillance against the fly and treatment of cattle for myiasis is estimated to be about $59 million. Its eradication from the entire Caribbean region by insect sterile method is advocated.